QUESTIONS 



IN 



Physical Geography 



GIVEN AT EXAMINATIONS HELD BY THE REGENTS 
OF THE UNIVERSITY OP THE STATE OP NEW YORK 



ARRANGED BY 

S. O- KIMM 
u 

Supervising Principal, Keeseville, N. Y. 




SYRACUSE, N. Y. 

<J. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 

1908 



Copyright, 1908, by C. W. Bardbbn 






Yof CONGRESS 
j Two Copies Received 

DEC 31 1908 

r>. Copyri^nt tntry 

CLASS (X Wto No 

T_-L_ (* -b 3 

COPY 



'J 



PREFACE 

This little book of questions and answers was not 
designed for "cramming" but for a help to both 
teacher and pupil at the close of the term after the sub- 
ject has been honestly and thoroughly studied. I have 
chosen what seemed to me the most important and 
frequently recurring questions in the Regents examina- 
tions, and have arranged them by topics. The answers 
are made more valuable by references to the leading 
authors, as shown in the list on page 31 of the Key. 
The maps and pictures are sometimes repeated that 
they may adjoin the matter they illustrate, the one 
object being to make the book convenient and usable. 



SUBJECTS 

Pages 

The earth as a planet, 1-20 9, 33 

The earth's surface, 21-74 10, 37 

Water, 75-123 14, 57 

Atmosphere, 124-206 17, 91 

Flora and fauna, 207-247 23, 115 

General questions, 248-293 26, 125 



Eegents Questions-Physical Geography 

THE EARTH AS A PJLANET 

1 Define (a) solstice, (b) satellite, (c) ecliptic, (d) 
aphelion, (e) perihelion, (J) cotidal lines, (g) parhelia. 

2 Describe the solar system. 

3 Compare the earth with the planet Jupiter as to 
(a) size, (6) mass, (c) distance from the sun. 

4 Give the causes of the change of seasons. 

5 Show by a diagram the position of the earth in its 
orbit, and (a) the inclination of its axis at the times of 
the summer and winter solstices, and (&) of the vernal 
and autumnal equinoxes. 

6 Describe the two principal motions of the earth 
and state their respective effects on its physical condition. 

7 Show how one of the earth' s motions produces the 
change of seasons. 

8 Give five proofs of the rotundity of the earth. 

9 Describe the earth as to (a) form, (6) size and (c) 
mass. 

10 Describe each of the mathematical zones as to (a) 
location, (b) width. 

11 Name and define five important circles on the 
earth, and give the reason for the position of each. 

12 At what time during the year are day and night 
of equal length over all the earth ? 

13 Explain. 

(9) 



10 EEGENTS QUESTIONS 

14 Name the planets in order of their size. 

15 Describe the experiments to prove the rotation of 
the earth. 

16 Define (a) latitude; (b) longitude. 

17 (a) Where does a degree of latitude have the great- 
est length ? (b) Why ? (c) State in miles the approxi- 
mate length of a degree of latitude. 

18 (d) How do degrees of longitude compare as to 
length in different latitudes? (e) Why? 

19 Explain the relation of longitude to latitude. 

20 Define (a) polar projection, (b) conical projection, 
(c) equatorial projection. 

THE EARTH'S SURFACE 

21 Describe the proofs of the original fluidity of the 
earth. 

22 Give the proofs of a present heated interior of the 
earth. 

23 Name four effects of the heated interior of the 
earth. 

24 Describe two kinds of volcanic eruptions and men- 
tion a volcano illustrative of each. 

25 Describe two forms of volcanic cones and show 
how each is produced. 

26 What force causes lava to rise in a volcano ? 

27 Discuss the relations existing between earthquakes 
and volcanoes. 

28 (a) State the leading theory with reference to the 
cause of earthquakes. (6) Describe the great earth- 
quake of Lisbon. 

29 (a) Describe the movements of the ground in earth- 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 11 

quakes, (b) What regions are especially subject to 
earthquakes ? 

30 Why do they occur more frequently at night than 
during the day, in winter than in summer, and during 
new and full moon? 

31 Name the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes. 
Name two volcanic regions. 

32 Mention three effects of the contraction of the 
earth's crust. 

33 What two elementary substances form the greater 
part by weight of the earth's crust? 

34 In what classes may rocks be divided as to (a) ori- 
gin, (6) condition? 

35 Describe the formation of a coal bed. 

36 Name four agencies that are constantly effecting 
changes in the contour of the surface of the earth. 

37 Describe the land masses of the earth as to (a) 
distribution, (b) relative size. 

38 Name three peculiarities in the distribution of the 
land masses. 

39 Name two classes of islands. Name an important 
island of each class, locate it, describe its physical fea- 
tures and tell how it was formed. 

40 Describe some volcanic island with regard to its 
formation and present characteristics. 

41 Describe the growth of a barrier reef. Mention a 
noted example of a barrier reef. 

42 State the physical conditions necessary to the 
growth of coral islands. 

43 Name and describe four varieties of coral forma- 
tions. Give an example of each. 



12 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

44 Give Darwin's theory concerning the formation of 
coral islands. 

45 Describe the development of a mountain system. 
State the cause. 

46 Describe the relief forms of Asia and show how 
they have affected the development of that country. 

47 Why has the great low plain of Europe no large 
river system ? Explain. 

48 Describe the great low plain of South America as 
to (a) location and extent, (6) nature of the soil, (c) 
kind of vegetation. 

49 Describe the great low plain of Europe as to (a) 
location, (6) topography, (c) drainage. 

50 Describe the great low plain of North America as 
to (a) location and extent, (6) topography, (c) drain- 
age, (d) adaptation to human life. 

51 Compare the coast line of North America with 
that of Europe as to indentation. Which is the more 
favorable to commerce ? Why ? 

52 Describe the Rocky Mountain System and state 
its effect on the climate of North America. 

53 Give the location and state the cause of the desert 
belt of the eastern continents. 

54 Give a brief description of the Atlantic highlands 
of North America. 

55 Mention three points in which the relief forms of 
North America resemble those of South America. Two 
points in which they differ. 

56 Describe as to location and extent the plains of 
South America, Asia, North America, Europe and 
Australia. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 13 

57 Mention three points in which the relief forms of 
Europe resemble those of Asia, and two points in which 
they differ. 

58 Describe the relief of Europe. 

59 Show the effect of the Mohawk gap at Little Falls 
on the development of New York City. 

60 Describe the predominant mountain system of 
Europe. 

61 Describe the formation of a longitudinal valley. 

62 Name, locate and describe the predominant moun- 
tain system in each of the following: Asia, South Amer- 
ica, North America and Africa. 

63 Define lagoon, fossil, volcano, earthquake, rock, 
mineral, island, orology, palaeontology, plateau, plain, 
intermont. 

64 Describe the formation of fluviatile or marine 
plains, lacusturine plains. Illustrate. 

65 Describe or explain the formation of peneplains. 
Illustrate. 

66 Into what three classes are mountains divided ? 

67 What are the causes of coastal plains ? 

68 What are mesas or buttes ? 

69 State how the distribution of volcanoes is related 
to the position of the oceans. Account for this relation. 

70 Compare the coast line of the eastern continents 
with those of the western continents, those of the north- 
ern hemisphere with those of the southern hemisphere, 
those of the western side of the continents with those of 
the eastern side of the continents. 

71 Show how the relief of New York State has spec- 
ially fitted it for the occupancy of mankind. 



14 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

72 What is the difference between a plain and a 
plateau ? 

73 Mention two great plains and two great plateaus. 

74 State the effect of the destruction of forests. 

WATER 

75 Define silt, geyser, water, spring, river, water- 
shed, river-system, basin, channel, delta, lakes, water, 
tides, fiord. 

76 Describe the solvent powers of water. 

77 Name and describe six springs, giving a noted ex- 
ample of each. 

78 Describe the formation of (a) fluviatile islands, 
(b) fluviatile lakes. 

79 Describe the distribution of lakes in the United 
States and state the causes of this distribution. 

80 Account for the existence of salt lakes. Give two 
examples of salt lakes. 

81 Mention five principal lakes within New York 
state. Explain how each of these lakes has contributed 
to the welfare of people in its vicinity. 

82 Explain the action of rivers in forming alluvial 
flats and islands. 

83 Give the principal cause of the formation of lakes. 
Account for the elevated beaches found in New York 
stale near Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. 

84 Describe two fluvio-marine formations. Give 
examples of each. 

85 Describe the drainage system of each of the follow- 
ing countries: North America, Asia, Europe and South 
America. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 15 

86 Describe the Nile River, touching on (a) causes 
of its periodic rise and fall, (b) economic effect of its 
annual overflow. 

87 Describe the drainage of New York State. Show 
the relation of this drainage to the prosperity of the 
state. 

88 Compare the drainage of North America with the 
drainage of Africa. 

89 What is meant by deposition of silt? Mention 
four parts of a river basin where this phenomenon occurs. 

90 Describe the formation of (a) caverns, (b) cascades. 

91 Give reasons for regarding the drainage system of 
the highland of Canada, lying between the St. Lawrence 
and Hudson Bay as being in a comparatively early 
stage of development. 

92 Explain how river courses tend to become senous. 
Give illustrations. 

93 State the conditions necessary for the formation 
of (a) sand bars, (6) sounds, (c) flood plains. 

94 Name and describe five river basins that determ- 
ine the drainage of Africa. 

95 Explain why the river channel in the lower courses 
of large rivers is usually characterized by wide bends. 

96 Account for the saltness and the color of the ocean. 

97 Compare the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic 
Ocean«as to (a) depth, (b) relative size, (c) shape. 

98 Describe the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. 

99 Give the topography of the ocean bottom. 

100 Describe the bed of the Pacific. 

101 Mention three oceanic movements and give the 
cause of each. 



16 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

102 Describe ocean waves as to (a) cause, (6) form, 
(c) effects. 

103 Describe the origin and progress of the tidal wave 
of the Pacific. 

104 Trace the course, of the Kuro Sivo (Japan Cur- 
rent) and state its effect upon climate. 

105 Give principal cause of ocean currents. Men- 
tion the currents of the Atlantic. 

106 State in regard to spring tides (a) the conditions 
under which they occur, (6) frequency of occurrence. 

107 Discuss tides (a) as to cause, (6) as to laws of 
occurrence. 

108 Give an example of the influence of oceanic 
currents on climate. 

109 State in regard to neap tides (a) conditions under 
which they occur, (b) number of times they occur 
annually. 

110 Describe the south equatorial current of the At- 
lantic as to (or) cause, (b) course, (c) influence on 
climate. 

111 Explain how tides are produced. At what in- 
tervals do the tides occur ? Explain. 

112 Mention five principal causes of the deflection of 
polar and equatorial ocean currents. 

113 Explain the production of tides. 

114 Explain how races and whirlpools are caused. 

115 Mention three causes that prevent the polar cur- 
rents from moving in the direct line of the meridians. 

116 Describe the north equatorial current of the Pa- 
cific as to (a) cause, (6) direction, (c) extent, (d) in- 
fluence on climate. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 17 

117 Illustrate by means of a drawing the direction of 
the constant surface ocean currents in the northern 
hemisphere; in the southern hemisphere. 

118 Compare waves with tide and with ocean cur- 
rents as to causes, motion of water and effects. 

119 What is the Gulf Stream ? Trace its course and 
state its effect. 

120 Explain by diagram or otherwise the formation 
of artesian wells. What has been learned from such 
wells regarding the temperature of the earth below the 
surface ? 

121 Explain the formation of an ordinary hillside 
spring. 

122 Account for the formation of geysers. Mention 
three noted geyser regions. 

123 What is a periodic spring? Illustrate by a 
drawing. 

ATMOSPHERE 

124 Define climate, monsoon, glacier, magnet, iso- 
therm, meteor, barograph, moraine, mirage, isobar, 
simoon. 

125 Explain the causes of atmospheric circulation. 

126 Mention five elements that enter into the com- 
position of the atmosphere. 

127 Explain the principle of the barometer. 

128 Mention four constituents of the air, and give 
the function of two of these constituents. 

129 Show how the barometer may be used in meas- 
uring the height of mountains. 

130 Mention four principal causes on which climate 
depends. Explain one of them. 



18 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

131 Define the astronomical and physical climates. 

132 Compare the temperature of the ocean with that 
of the continents in (a) winter, (6) summer. Explain. 

133 Compare the climate of Irkutsk, an inland town 
of Siberia, with the climate of Dublin in nearly the 
same latitude. Explain. 

134 Account for the climatic conditions in the zone 
of polar winds in (a) summer, (6) winter. 

135 Account for the fact that New York State has a 
cold winter, while Italy in the same latitude has a mild 
climate. 

136 Account for the marked contrast between the 
climate of the eastern and that of the western coast of 
the United States. 

137 Name five factors influencing the climate of 
Charleston, South Carolina. State how each of these 
factors affects the climate. 

138 During what month is the heat greatest in places 
having the same latitude as Havana, Cuba ? Why ? 

139 Why are places in the eastern coast of South 
America warmer than places in the same latitude on 
the western coast ? 

140 Assume that an area of high barometer is mov- 
ing across the United States; state the weather condi- 
tions that will probably prevail along its course. 

141 Mention two reasons that account for the differ- 
ence in climate between London and the southern part 
of Labrador. 

142 Compare the climate of the Adirondack region 
with that of Long Island. 

143 Why do places on the coast have a more equa- 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 19 

ble temperature than places in the interior of a 
country ? 

144 Why is the mean annual temperature of Stock- 
holm, about 60 degrees north latitude, the same as that 
of Montreal, about 45 degrees north latitude ? 

145 Define isothermal lines. Are they straight lines? 
Explain. 

146 Show why isothermal lines do not coincide with 
parallels of latitude. Consider at least 4 reasons. 

147 Give the approximate course of the isotherm of 
50 degrees across North America, the Atlantic Ocean 
and Europe. 

148 Trace the course of the isotherm of 30 degrees 
north across the earth and account for its deviation 
from the parallels of latitude. 

149 What is the cause of winds ? Make a diagram 
showing the origin and the direction of atmospheric 
currents. 

150 Describe the wind zones. 

151 Describe the movement of storms across the 
United States and the Atlantic Ocean. 

152 Describe and account for monsoons. Mention 
two regions of monsoons. 

153 What conditions are necessary for the production 
of (a) land breezes, (b) sea breezes, (c) mountain 
breezes. 

154 From what direction do the coldest winds come 
in Eastern North America ? Explain. 

155 What are periodic winds ? Mention and de- 
scribe two. 



20 KEGENTS QUESTIONS 

156 Describe the trade winds as to (a) cause, (6) 
location, (c) direction, (d) beneficial results. 

157 Describe the periodic winds of India, giving 
their causes and their results. 

158 Account for the prevalence of monsoons in the 
Indian Ocean ; in the Gulf of Guinea. 

159 State the principal cause of the West India cy- 
clone and trace its path. 

160 What are cyclones? Where are they most fre- 
quent and what are their peculiarities ? 

161 Account for the rotation and the direction of the 
progression of cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere. 

162 Give the cause, origin and course of a West 
India hurricane. 

163 Name three of the principal hurricane regions. 
Indicate by diagram or otherwise the two movements 
common to hurricanes in these regions. 

164 Describe the simoon. Explain why it is espec- 
ially dangerous. 

165 Describe a Chinese typhoon as to (a) cause, (6) 
time of occurrence, (c) kinds of motion. 

166 State from what source and how the moisture in 
the atmosphere comes, and through what processes it 
must pass before it is precipitated in the form of rain. 

167 What is each of the following: dew, fog, cloud, 
hoar frost, snow ? 

168 Explain the statements: the dew point is fifty- 
six; the humidity is seventy. 

169 What is meant by point of saturation of the at- 
mosphere ? Distinguish between actual humidity and 
relative humidity. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 21 

170 What is meant by the mean annual rainfall ? 
How is this rainfall determined for a given place? 
What is the mean annual rainfall in the United States? 

171 State the conditions necessary for rainfall in the 
zone of the trade. 

172 Explain why dew gathers more heavily in the 
valleys than on hilltops. 

173 How is the formation of dew affected by (a) 
clouds, (6) winds? Explain. 

174 Describe an experiment to illustrate the deposit 
of dew. 

175 Why does frost injure vegetation in the valley 
before it touches vegetation on the hill ? 

176 Give with reference to the section in which you 
live (a) the mean annual temperature, (6) the mean 
annual rainfall. 

177 Name three causes of a sufficient reduction of 
temperature to produce a fall of rain. 

178 Describe the rainfall in the region of calms. 

179 Describe fully the effects of mountain chains on 
rainfall in their vicinity. 

180 Give the cause of (a) rainbows, (6) coronas. 

181 Account for the absence of rain in the desert of 
Gobi in Mongolia. 

182 Name three conditions on which the height of 
the snow line depends. 

183 Account for the prevalence of fog off the banks 
of Newfoundland. 

184 Mention two reasons why rainfall on plateaus is 
less copious than that on other forms of relief. 



22 EEGENTS QUESTIONS 

185 Give the cause of the absence of rain in the 
Arabian desert. 

186 Mention two services rendered by the weather 
bureau. 

187 Describe the various forms of clouds and discuss 
the atmospheric conditions that precede and those that 
succeed rainfall. 

188 Describe the cumulus cloud as to (a) cause, (6) 
form, (c) height, (d) time of occurrence. 

180 Describe the stratus cloud as to (a) cause, (b) 
form, (c) time of occurrence. 

190 Explain what is meant by The Aurora Borealis. 

191 Why does more rain fall (a) on mountains than 
on plains, (6) on the coast than in the interior of a 
country ? 

192 Compare the process of the formation of snow 
with that of hail. 

193 Give the location and state the cause of the des- 
ert belt of the eastern continent. 

194 Give the cause of the brilliant colors often seen 
in the clouds at sunset. 

195 Give the cause of the blue color of the sky. 

196 Discuss the formation and distribution of icebergs. 

197 Give the geographic distribution of glaciers. 

198 Account for (a) the formation of glaciers, (6) 
the motion of glaciers. Upon what does the rate of 
motion of a glacier depend ? 

199 Classify moraines and state the origin of each 
class. 

200 What two powers has a glacier ? Explain. 

201 Define isogonal lines, looming, isoclinal lines. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 23 

202 Describe five kinds of optical phenomena and 
explain the cause of each. 

203 Explain the phrase, " declination of the mag- 
netic needle". Where does the line of no declination 
cross the United States ? 

204. Account for (a) the inclination or dip of the 
magnetic needle, (6) the variation of the magnetic 
needle. 

205 Suggest an experiment to illustrate refraction of 
light. Explain. 

206 Discuss the magnetic properties of the globe. 

FLORA AND FAUNA 

207 Define plant geography, zoological geography. 

208 What are the essential conditions of vegetation ? 
Show how both horizontal and vertical distribution de« 
pends on these conditions. 

209 Mention two regions where rice is extensively 
grown and show why these regions are adapted to such 
growth. 

210 Mention five cereals and give the northern limit 
of the growth of each as determined by latitude. 

211 Explain the influence of latitude on plant and 
animal life. Give illustrations. 

212 Give the geographic distribution of cereals. 

213 Mention 10 characteristic food plants of the 
tropic regions. 

214 Compare the flora and fauna of Australia with 
those of other continents. 

215 Name five important food plants. Name con- 
ditions necessary to the growth of each and mention 
two widely separated localities where these conditions 



24 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

are met and consequently where the plants are grown. 

216 Mention five food plants that contribute largely 
to the wealth of New York State, and indicate localities 
where these are extensively cultivated. 

217 What are selvas, steppes, llanos, heaths, pam- 
pas ? Describe the vegetable and animal life of any 
one of these. 

218 State where the following articles are found and 
tell why they are valued: cinchona, bread fruit, caout- 
chouc, cocaine, manioc, millet, lichens. 

219 State the effect on vegetable life of increasing 
altitude. Explain. 

220 Mention two regions of the earth's surface desti- 
tute of vegetation, and state the physical conditions 
which render them so. 

221 Name three plants useful as furnishing material 
for clothing; three useful for medicine; four useful in 
the arts. 

222 Name 10 characteristic food plants of the tropic 
regions. 

223 Discuss the effects of decreased density of the 
atmosphere at high altitude on vegetable and animal 
life. 

224 Name two regions where rice is grown exten- 
sively; two regions where sugar cane is cultivated 
extensively. 

225 Mention 10 animals characteristic of the north- 
ern hemisphere; 10 of the southern hemisphere. . 

226 Mention five animals characteristic of the Asiatic 
fauna. 

227 Name five animals used in various localities as 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 25 

beasts of burden. Indicate how and why each is used. 

228 Name five valuable fur-bearing animals formerly- 
found in the State of New York. 

229 Mention 10 characteristic animals of Africa. 

230 Mention 10 characteristic animals of South 
America. 

231 Mention five principal burden-bearing animals 
of the globe and show how each is fitted for the region 
where it is used. 

232 Compare the characteristic animals of the Aus- 
tralia region with those of the North America region. 

233 Compare two characteristic animals of North 
America with two similar animals of some other region. 

234 Mention five orders of animals common to the 
northern continents. 

235 Mention the characteristics of each of three 
zones of animal life. 

236 Describe any two of the following races in res- 
pect to their physical characteristics and their social 
conditions: Chinese, Australians, Japanese, American 
can Indians. 

237 Give the general characteristics of the Caucasian 
race, and the geographic distribution of each. 

238 Give arguments that tend to prove the unity of 
the human race. 

239 State how the Northmen were influenced by 
surroundings. 

240 Give the chief characteristics of the Mongolian 
race. Mention three representative nations of this 
race. 

241 Account for the difference in intellectual devel- 



26 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

opment between the Caucasian and the Mongolian 
races. 

242 Discuss the African race as to origin, distribu- 
tion, physical and mental peculiarities. 

243 Mention five marked cases in which man has 
greatly modified natural geographic conditions in order 
to increase commercial facilities. 

244 Mention five races of mankind and in the case 
of each race give a geographic reason for its progress or 
lack of progress. 

245 Give five marked cases illustrating man's skill in 
overcoming adverse physiographic conditions for the 
purpose of promoting material prosperity. 

246 Mention five noted sections where man has 
made the country available for his comfort by modify- 
ing natural conditions, as by irrigation or by reclaiming 
lands naturally covered by water. 

247 Mention three physiographic causes that deter- 
mine the distribution of plants and animals. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS 

248 Define meteorology, races, water spout, aurora 
borealis, detritus, undertow, halo, forarmini fera, dol- 
drums, agone, bore, divide, relief, fauna, estuary, cot- 
idal lines, physiography, silt, breakers, peat, talus, 
anemometer, ethnography. 

249 Distinguish between physical and political geog- 
raphy. 

250 Mention five minerals and state where each is 
extensively mined. • 

251 In sailing from San Francisco to Yokohoma does 
a ship take the northern or southern course ? Why ? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 27 

252 Describe three natural conditions favoring the 
location of cities. 

253 Describe any two watersheds of North America, 
and show how they influence the distribution of popu- 
lation and the occupation of the people. 

254 Mention five physical characteristics of New 
York that have tended to make it the Empire State. 

255 Describe the origin and growth of some land 
feature that you have observed in your vicinity. 

256 State the importance of a mountain pass. Men- 
tion several mountain passes. 

257 Describe the system of internal navigation of 
New York State. 

258 Name five of the principal sources of mineral 
wealth of New York State. 

259 Account for the location of five cities by refer- 
ence to the physiographic conditions that determined 
and aided the growth of each. 

• 260 State two reasons why it takes a vessel less time 
to sail from New York to Liverpool than from Liver- 
pool to New York. 

261 Explain how the topography of the northern prai- 
ries of the U. S. has affected the development of farm- 
ing implements. 

262 State two different geographic conditions under 
which gold is found. State how these conditions are 
related. 

263 What are the following: engrafted river, drowned 
river, old, middle aged, and new rivers ? Explain. 

264 How are salt lakes formed ? Name five noted 
examples of salt lakes. 



'28 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

265 What are the following : races, whirlpools, mael- 
strom, convection? 

266 Of what value are ocean currents to navigation ? 

267 Describe five principal building stones found in 
the State of New York. Mention a locality where each 
is found. 

268 What is the difference between a glacier deposit 
and a glacier sediment ? 

269 What are the following: till sheets, drumlin, 
eskers, kames? 

270 Name and describe three types of glaciers. 

271 Describe a field study that you have made of 
glacial markings or glacial deposits. 

272 Mention the physical characteristics that adapt 
the United States in a high degree for the development 
of civilization. 

273 Describe the equatorial calms as to (a) cause, (6) 
location or extent. 

274 What is meant by the zone of fracture ? Men- 
tion the parts of the earth's surface included in this 
zone. 

275 Give the cause and describe the process of the 
Appalachian Mountains. 

276 Explain the existence of the gorge and falls of 
Niagara. 

277 Account for the great difference of rainfall on 
the west coast and on the east coast of Scandinavia. 

278 State the probable effect of (a) a great decrease 
of the amount of carbon dioxid in the air, (6) a great 
increase of the amount of carbon dioxid in the air. 

279 In what portion of North America does the most 
rain fall? Explain. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 29 

280 Why is the New England plateau not well adapt- 
ed to grain farming ? 

281 Mention two extensive industrial regions of the 
United States and show their dependence on physio- 
graphic conditions. 

Or 

282 Submit a map or weather chart made by you 
during the term. 

283 State the influence on the distribution of animals 
of (a) water barriers, (6) mountain ranges. Give 
illustrations. 

284 What is the weight of a cubic foot of air at sea- 
level ? Why does the density of air vary ? 

285 Why is the summer of North Africa so much 
warmer than regions of the New World in the same 
latitude ? 

286 Suggest an experiment to show convection. 
What climatic phenomena does the experiment illus- 
trate;? 

287 Explain the construction and the action of a 
thermometer. How do the Fahrenheit and Centigrade 
thermometer scales differ? 

288 Mention five extensive regions that are not habi- 
table and give physiographic reasons for such condition. 

289 Why are the western coasts of continents in the 
southern hemisphere colder and the eastern coasts 
warmer than the latitudes would naturally indicate ? 

290 Describe (a) block mountains, (6) folded moun- 
tains. Give an example of each kind. 

291 Account for the prevalence of dense fog off the 
banks of Newfoundland. 



30 REGENTS QUESTIONS 

292 Distinguish between physiographic and climatic 
barriers to the dispersal of animal life over wide areas. 

293 Explain how the physical characteristics of Great 
Britain have tended to promote or to retard the material 
prosperity of that country. 



ANSWERS 

References to text-books are as follows: 



D 


Dryer. 


G 


Guyot. 


H 


Houston. 


M 


Maury. 


R 


Regents Geography and Key, 


T 


Tarr, Elementary. 


Ta 


Tarr, New Physical. 



Key to Eegents Physical Geography 

1 (a) Solstice is the time of year when the sun is 
at its greatest declination, either north or south, and 
seems to pause before returning on its course, usually 
P-Jfai-d, 2/ 




23J° s. 
Winter Sclstict. QQi° 



Autumnal Fn u'j 



■quinox. 

June 21 and December 22 — the summer and winter 
solstices respectively. (D 23) 

(6) Satellite is a smaller body revolving around a 
larger one. There are, in the solar system, 21, rang- 
ing in size from 5 miles to 3,550 miles in diameter. 

(c) Ecliptic is the name given to a great circle whose 
plane coincides with the plane of the earth's orbit. 
These two planes are inclined at an angle of 23° 27'. 
(if 32) 

(d) Aphelion the point in the orbit of a planet 
farthest from the sun. 



34 KEGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

(e) Perihelion the point in the orbit of a planet 
nearest the sun. 

(/) Cotidal lines are lines connecting all places 
which receive the tidal wave at the same time. (H 174) 

(g) Halos and (h) Coronae are rings of prismatic 
color surrounding the sun and moon. They are 
caused by the presence of small crystals of ice or 
snow. 

(k) Parhelia are mock suns caused by circles from 
halos intersecting each other. (H 260) 

2 The Solar System comprises the sun, 8 large 
bodies called planets, and a large number of asteroids, 
besides comets and meteors. Some of the planets 
are attended by moons or satellites. 

3 Jupiter has (a) about 10 times as long a diam- 
eter, 13 times the volume, (6) is .4 times as dense, and 
(c) is a little over 5 times as far from the sun. (H 16) 

4 The causes are two: revolution of the earth 
together with the inclination of the earth's axis to 
the plane of its orbit, and the constant parallelism 
of the earth's axis. Sec lc. (H 32; D 19) 

5 See H 33 and D 21. 

6 Rotation of the earth on its axis from west to 
east causes change of day and night. Revolution 
of the earth around the sun from west to east causes 
the change of seasons. These movements also cause 
the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies. (H 30) 

7 The inclination of the earth axis causes the 
northern hemisphere to lean towards the sun during 
half of the year and away from the sun during the 
remaining half. Hence the vertical rays would fall 



THE EARTH AS A PLANET 85 

north of the equator while the northern hemisphere 
leaned towards the sun and would have its warmest 
season or summer. Six months later the same con- 
ditions would prevail in the southern hemisphere. 
(H. 32; D 19) 

8 Appearance of approaching objects, circular 
shape of the horizon, shape of the earth's shadow, 
measurement, and the shape of the great circle of 
illumination. (H 19) 

9 The earth is (a) an oblate spheroid, its axis 
being the shorter diameter. (6) Its mean diameter 
is 7,918 miles, and(c) it is 53^ times as dense as water. 

10 See any geography. (H 35; R 186) 

11 The circles of the earth are divided into great 
and small circles. The former are the equator and 
meridian circles. The latter are the parallels — the 
tropics and polar circles. The polar circles are 23° 27' 
from the poles and mark the limit of the sun's rays 
as they shine beyond the poles. The tropics mark 
the limit of the vertical rays of the sun north and 
south of the equator. The parallels also define the 
boundaries of the mathematical zones. See p. 36. 
(H 22; R 186) 

12 About March 21 and September 22. (D 15) 

13 The sun is then directly over the equator and 
the circle of illumination reaches from pole to pole. 
Thus every place on the earth's surface is in sunlight 
one-half of the 24 hours. 

14 Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, Earth, 
Venus, Mars, Mercury. (H 16) 



36 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



15 If we carefully watch the horizon at sunset 
we shall see it rise slowly away from the sun. 



N.T>cU 











wdhL 


? ui\We 










/ / 1 ** 










OrO£c\^\ \ \ 






I ^^klemf 


erate W' \ \ \ JX^Sa 






J 1 ■ * 








/ — -—^-Jrop'ic' o 


f Co7lC^_— -A """v^ \ \ S 




TZqiiA 


Vtor 


1 


Torrid/ 


Y&°™ 
















?" 










\ i 


"OpiC' of 


Capricor 






\ " 


r \ 








\ & 


\ 3 

oWv Xemj 


J 
a-ate i 


Ke. J 1 / r^ 




-Tfiilarcti 


o GJJSC£; 






Jv \ \ s< 


// ' 










sV'V" 


•MZoL 







S.T,u 

Trees and fences seem to move past us as we ride 
on swiftly moving trains. 

With the telescope we see the heavenly bodies 
rotating. 

Marks made by Foucoult's Pendulum. (H 29) 
Bodies falling from a great height are deflected 
toward the east. 



THE EARTH AS A PLANET 37 

The deviation of winds and ocean currents and 
the rotation of cyclones, (if 29) 

16 (a) Latitude is the distance north or south of the 
equator measured on a meridian. 

(6) Longitude is the distance east or west of any 
given meridian. 

17 (a, c) Degrees of latitude vary from 68.7 miles 
at the equator to 69.39 miles at the poles. (6) This 
variation is due to the flattening of the meridians at 
the poles. 

18 (a) Degrees of longitude vary from about 
69 1-6 miles at the equator to at the poles, (6) be- 
cause they are measured on parallels of latitude, and 
the parallels grow smaller or they approach the 
poles. See R 186. 

19 See 16-18. 

20 (a) In a polar projection the poles form the 
center and the equator the border of the map. 

(6) In a conical projection the earth's surface is 
represented or if drawn on a cone and then unralled. 

(c) In an equatorial projection the equator passes 
through the center of the map and a meridian circle 
forms the border. (H 26) 

21 The earth's spheroidal shape is the same as 
that of the other heavenly bodies, the same as if it 
were once molten. It is flattened at the poles. 
When a plastic sphere is rapidly whirled it tends to 
form an oblate spheroid. (H 40) 

22 As we descend toward the earth's center the 
heat increases 1°F. for every 55 feet. In all lati- 
tudes great quantities of melted matter escape from 



38 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

the interior of the earth. Different parts of the 
earth's surface are constantly rising and sinking. 
(ff 40) 

23 Crater or volcanic eruptions; fissure or sheet 
eruptions; gradual changes of level; earthquakes. 
(H 43) 

24 Explosive and nonexplosive. Explosive erup- 
tions are attended by the formation of quantities of 
highly heated steam. They are usualy preceded by 
earthquake shocks; then large quantities of ashes 
are thrown in the air, and this is followed by the 
escape of lava, as in Vesuvius. 

Non-explosive eruptions occur where the lava is 
more fluid, and there is an absence of suddenly formed 
vapor, or gas. The lava sometimes flows quietly 
out of the top, and frequently out of fissures near 
the bottom or on the side of the mountain. This is 
due to the enormous pressure exerted by the column 
of lava. Examples: Kilauea and Etna. (H 48; D 196) 

26 The inclination of slope depends on the nature 
of the material of which they are formed. Where 
lava is the main ingredient the cone is broad and 
flat as in Etna and Hawaii. Lava cones range 
from 3° to 10° according to the liquidity of the lava. 

Ashes and cinders form steeper cones, whose in- 
clinations range from 30° to 40°, as in Stromboli 
and Vesuvius. See 40. {H 46; D 196) 

26 The best authorities regard the prime cause 
of volcanic eruptions as the shrinkage or contraction 
of the heated interior. Some claim that pressure of 
steam is one of the causes of lava rising from the 



the earth's surface 39 

plastic interior. If this were true dikes would be 
filled with air spaces instead of being solid. However, 
steam and gases do aid to a certain extent in the 
last stage of the eruption. (H 47; D 208) 

27 Earthquakes occur chiefly in regions which 
are still undergoing movements of elevation and 
folding, and hence are intimately associated with 
young mountains and volcanoes They are especially 
frequent along the borders of the Pacific ocean, where 
the slopes of the continental plateau are steepest. 
In Japan noticeable shocks occur almost daily, and 
delicate instruments show that the earth-crust is in 
a continual tremor. (Z> 191; H 55; M 22) 

28 (a) The elevation, depression, folding and 
faulting of the earth-crust show that it is subject to 
a variety of stresses and strains when it finally 
yields to an increasing stress and a displacement 
suddenly occurs, a violent jar results, which is prop- 
agated through the crust and is recognized at the 
surface as an earthquake. The shock travels about 
three miles per second. (D 190) 

(6) For description of earthquake at Lisbon see H 59. 

29 (a) Rotary motions are attended by whirling- 
motion of the crust; Explosive by a violent motion 
directly upward; Wavelike are horizontally progres- 
sive, like waves in water. The area of disturbance 
is great. (H 56) 

(6) They are most frequent in volcanic districts; 
in mountainous rather than in flat countries; along 
the borders of the Pacific ocean; Japan; and in vol- 
canic islands. (D 191; H 58) 



40 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

30 They are more frequent in winter and at night 
because the cooling and consequent contraction occur 
more rapidly at these times. It is greater during 
new and full moon because of the increased force on 
the earth's crust. (H 58) 

31 See 26-30. 

32 Mountains were and are gradually being 
formed. ( T 363) Earthquakes (M 22) and volcanoes. 
(H 47) 

33 Oxygen and silicon. (H 63) 

34 (a) Igneous, aqueous and metamorphic. 
(6) Stratified and unstratified. (H 64) 

35 During the carboniferous period the continents 
were covered with luxuriant vegetation, subject at 
long intervals to extensive inundations. The decay- 
ing vegetation, decomposing under water, retained 
most of its solid constituent carbon and formed a bed 
of coal. 

36 Action of ocean waves, tides and currents; 
agency of man; winds; erosion; corrosion; weathering; 
transportation. (D 63; H 72) 

37 (a) Horizontal — continents and islands; ver- 
tical — high lands and low lands. 

(b) For relative sizes see H 82. 

38 Continents extend farther north than south 
The land masses are crowded together near the north 
pole. The three main southern projections of the 
land are separated from each other by extensive 
oceans. (H 78) 

39 Continental and oceanic. (M 38) The former 



THE EARTH'S SURFACE 41 

are near continents, as Great Britain and Ireland. 
The latter are in mid ocean as the chain of the Sand- 
wich Islands. 

Oceanic islands are volcanic and coral. (H 83) 

40 Stromboli rises from the Mediterranean sea 
north of Sicily. It is a conical pile of material re- 
sembling cinders or the clay of an iron furnace. It 
is 4 or 5 miles in diameter and 3,000 feet high. It 
was formed by ejected material. 

41 Coral limestone is derived from countless skel- 
etons of minute polyps that once lived beneath ete 
surface of the water. The skeletons, however, are 
not separate, because they increase by building, thus 
growing into a solid mass. This mass grows upward 
till the low water mark is reached. They work their 
way outward, forming four varieties of coral islands: 
(a) Fringing reefs are narrow ribbons of coral rock 
lying near the shore of an ordinary island. (6) Barrier 
reefs are broader and lie at a greater distance but do 
not extend entirely around the island, (c) Encircling 
reefs extend entirely around the island. Tahiti of 
the Society Islands is an example of an encircling 
reef. New Caledonia and one along northeastern 
Australia are examples of barrier reefs, (d) Atoll 
is a name given to reefs that encircle lagoons of 
water. (H 87; D 176) 

42 According to Dana the temperature of the 
water must never fall below 68° F. Coral islands 
are confined to tropical water not exceeding 100 to 
180 feet in depth. They are never found in cold 
ocean currents. The most of the coral reefs are 



42 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

found in track of the equatorial currents which bring 
water and food. (H 88; MSI; D 177) 
.43 See 41. 

44 There is reason to believe that in those parts 
of the ocean where atolls now abound, high mountains 
once towered. These mountains were islands. Tha 
polyps built encircling reefs around them; but in 
many cases, as they built up, a gradual subsidence 
took place, until the island itself disappeared beneath 
the waves. Their subsidence on the one hand, and 
this building up on the other, may have continued 
for ages and to the extent of thousands of feet, so 
that where the mountain then was, may be deep 
waters and low atolls. Thus the mountain-top was 
replaced by the lagoon, and the encircling reef became 
the atoll. Tahiti is an illustration. (M 41; H 89) 

45 The earth is supposed to have been at one 
time a molten mass. As it cooled the surface con- 
tracted and portions of it settled down upon the 
melted interior. This caused a crumpling or folding 
in long parallel ridges, making mountain chains and 
longitudinal valleys. Such a process would make 
oval mountain tops. Where the rocks were broken 
and thrust up by lateral pressure the mountains 
would be broken and jagged. Through these broken 
strata melted matter from the interior was often 
forced by the downward pressure of the cooling sur- 
face and thus we often find huge granite peaks and 
ridges. (M 28; H 98) 

The Jura mountains of Switzerland are examples 
of folded mountains. Often the tops of mountains 



the earth's surface 43 

have been worn off to a depth of hundreds or perhaps 
thousands of feet, thus making plateaus. These in 
turn may be cut through by streams and form what 
is called plateau mountains, as in the Catskills of New 
York, and the Alleghanies of Pennyslvania and West 
Virginia. (D 189; H 98) 

46 For relief of Asia see Hill. For the effect and 
the development see 179', 184, 185 of these answers. 

47 Because it is one vast plain gradually descend- 
ing toward the north, permitting the rivers to flow 
in nearly parallel courses toward the Arctic waters. 
There are no transverse valleys, as in the lowland 
plain of North America. 

48 (a) It lies between the predominant system 
on the west and the secondary system on the east. 
(b) It is mainly of alluvial origin, slightly elevated, 
and much more level than the great plain of North 
America, (c) The three rivers divide it into three 
great regions called llanos of the Orinoco, the selvas 
of the Amazon, and the jpampas of the Rio de la 
platta. 

The llanos are grassy plains which during the rainy 
season, resemble our prairies, but during the dry 
weather are deserts. 

The selvas are covered with dense forests of lux- 
uriant growth. Near the rivers are great swamps. 

The pampas are grassy plains on which countless 
herds of horses and cattle graze. See 217. (H 106) 

49 (a) It reaches from the Bay of Biscay on the 
west to the Ural mts. on the east, and from the pre- 
dominant system to the northern waters of Europe. 



44 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




THE EARTH S SURFACE 45 

(b) It is remarkably level being the highest at the 
Valdor hills, which are about 1100 feet high, (c) 
The drainage is mostly toward the north in nearly 
parallel streams. 

50 (a) It lies between the Atlantic systems on the 
east, Pacific system on the west, Arctic ocean on the 
north and Gulf of Mexico on the south. 

(b) The height of land divides the plain into two 
gentle slopes, which descend toward the Arctic ocean 
and Gulf of Mexico respectively. The northern part 
is again divided by a gentle swell, and the two basins 
thus formed are connected by the Nelson river, which 
runs through a break in the water shed. The central 
plain is formed by the long gentle slope descending 
eastward from the base of the Rocky mts. , and the 
western slope from the Atlantic Highlands. Run- 
ning nearly through the centre is the Mississippi, 
fed by the tributaries that descend the long gentle 
slopes of the Atlantic and Pacific systems. (H 103) 

(e) Few places on the earth's surface are better 
fitted for human habitation. The soil is highly pro- 
ductive, the climate is neither too hot nor too cold, 
and communication is easy either by railor by the 
splendid river systems. Perhaps no large section 
of country in the world can so profitably carry on 
such a variety of occupations as are carried on in the 
great low plain of America. 

51 The coast line of Europe is much more indented 
than that of North America. This is due to the fact 
that spurs of the predominant system extend into 
the sea. Europe having many more land-locked har- 
bors is better fitted for commerce. 



46 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

52 The Cordillera of the Rocky, mountains, the 
predominant system, extends from the Arctic ocean 
to the Isthmus of Panama. It consists of an immense 
plateau, from 300 to 600 miles in breadth, crossed 
from north to south by two nearly parallel ranges; 
the Rocky mts. on the east and the Sierra Nevada 
and Cascade ranges on the west. The Rocky moun- 
tain range rests On a plateau about 6000 or 7000 feet 
high, forming the great water shed of the continent, 
the eastern slope being drained into the Atlantic, 
and the western into the Pacific. 

The culminating point of North America is Mount 
McKinley in Alaska. 

The Cascade range robs the prevailing westerly 
winds of their moisture, so that there is but little 
rainfall east of this range. Hence Southern Cali- 
fornia, Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado must de- 
pend upon irrigation to raise crops. 

53 The desert belt of the eastern continent ex- 
tends from the western shores of Northern Africa 
eastward to the great Kinghan mountains in Asia. 
It includes the Desert of Sahara, and the Arabian, 
Persian and Mongolian deserts. The cause is to be 
found in the dry tradewinds that have crossed the 
vast continent of Asia as upper currents, where they 
have been robbed of their moisture. Persia and Mon- 
golia owe their deserts to their high mountain borders 
which rob the clouds of their moisture. The high 
system of the Himalayas effectually prevents any 
of the moisture of the southwest winds from pene- 
trating the plateau of Mongolia. (H 23) 



THE EARTH'S SURFACE 



47 




54 The Atlantic highlands consist of a number 
of nearly parallel chains extending from the St. Law- 
rence to Alabama and Georgia. They are high at the 
northern and southern ends, and slope gradually 
towards the middle. The highest peaks at either 
end have an elevation of about 6,000 feet. They are 
broken into by two deep depressions which are tra- 



48 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




the earth's surface 49 

versed by the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. Between 
the foot of the system and the Atlantic lies a coast 
plain from 50 to 250 miles in width. (H 103) 

55 In both North and South America the pre- 
dominant system lies in the west, the secondary 
systems lie in the east, and the low plains are in 
the center. See p. 44. 

They differ in that in North America the predom- 
inant system is a broad plateau having high moun- 
tain systems; the secondary system is narrow and 
is formed of parallel ranges; the low plains are char- 
acterized by undulations, and contain many deep 
depressions occupied by extensive lake systems. 

In South America on the contrary the predominant 
system is narrow, the secondary systems are broad, 
and the low plain is exceedingly low and flat, and 
contains but few depressions and no great lake sys- 
tems. (H 107) 

56 For South America see question 48; for North 
America, 50; for Europe, 49. 

The great low plain of Asia is a continuation of the 
great European low plain and extends from the Arc- 
tic ocean southwesterly to the Caspian and Black 
seas. It is hilly in the east, but level in the west. 
Oh the south it is somewhat fertile but at the north 
it is gloomy and inhospitable. This vast region is 
called The Tundnas. It is covered with moss, lakes, 
and swamps in summer and with ice in winter. (H 114) 

But little is known of the low plain of Australia. 
It lies in the interior, and is moderately elevated at 



50 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




THE EARTH'S SURFACE 51 

the northern, eastern, and western borders. The 
southeastern portion is well watered and fertile. 
Several lakes exist in the depressions. (H 118) 

57 In both Europe and Asia the chief elevations 
are in the south and the great low plains are in the 
north. Each has at the south three great peninsulas. 

They differ in that the primary highland of Europe 
is more broken and irregular than that of Asia. 
Asia is the main body of the double continent, while 
Europe is the peninsula part of it. Again the different 
regions of Europe have better facilities of communi- 
cation than Asia. 

58 For a full description see H 107. 

59 Without this gap through the Appalachians 
there would be no main traveled highway through 
New York state, and commerce would be carried on 
through the St. Lawrence at the north or along the 
line of the Erie railroad in the south. Long before 
the white man visited America the Indians used the 
Mohawk and had their main trail along its banks. 
Later the Erie canal was built, which did much to 
develop New York state, and now through this gap 
runs one of the most important trunk line railways 
in the world. The vast business thus carried on 
naturally centers in New York city. 

60 See H 107. 

61 See 45. 

62 See 46, 52, 55, 57 and 60. 

x 63 A lagoon is a body of water inclosed by a low 
narrow rim of coral rock. 

Fossils are the remains of plants and animals that 



52 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

have been buried in the earth by natural causes. (H 
66) 

A volcano is a mountain or other elevation, more 
or less conical near the top, provided with an opening 
or crater, through which escapes from time to time 
vapors, ashes and lava. See 22-26, 69. {H 44) 

An earthquake is a shaking of the earth's crust, of 
degrees varying in intensity from scarcely perceptible 
tremors to violent agitations. It is sometimes called 
a seismic throb or shock. See 27, 28. (if 55) 

Rock, in its geological sense, embraces various 
mixtures of substances called minerals, that occur 
naturally in sufficient masses to be properly consid- 
ered as an essential part of the crust. This includes 
beds of sand and clay or well as the hard strata. (H 63) 

A mineral is a fairly definite chemical compound. 
Some of the important mineral constituents of the 
earth's crust are felspar, quartz, mica, soapstone, 
limestone and clay. (if 63) 

An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by 
water. 

Orology is the science which treats of mountains 
and their formation.. (if 97) 

Paleontology is the science which treats of the 
plants and animals whose remains are now found as 
fossils. (if 66) 

Plateaus or table lands are broad elevated areas 
which rise above the level of the surrounding country, 
sometimes level and sometimes having great mountain 
chains upon them. (M 28) „ , 

Plains are those portions of the earth's surface 



the earth's surface 53 

which are level, and which, though diversified with 
hills, have only a moderate elevation above the sea- 
level. (M 27) 

An intermont is a plateau occupying a wide region 
between distant mountains. (H 95) 

64 A fluviatile plain is made by the sediment 
deposited by a river as the Valley of California. 
See 78. (D 172) Also deltas of Nile, Ganges and 
Mississippi. 

A marine plain was once the floor of the sea. Our 
Atlantic seaboard is an illustration. 

A lacustrine plain is one made by the sediment 
deposited by a lake.. (H 93) Noted examples of 
lake plains are Lake Agassiz in the great wheat-grow- 
ing district of the Red river of the North, and the 
great level tract of country around Great Salt lake. 
(T 78) 

65 Pene plains or plains of denundation were 
once mountains or plateaus which were worn down 
by rivers until they assumed the form of only mod- 
erately elevated, gently rolling lowlands. The plains 
of Central Russia furnish an example. (H 94) 

66 Mountains by flexure, by fracture, by injec- 
tion of lava between strata. 

67 Coastal plains are lowlands gently sloping 
from the mountains to the coast. They are usually 
due to a gradual uplift of part of the ocean's bed. 
They vary in width from narrow tracts to many miles. 
Our Atlantic sea-board is an example. (H 93) 

68 As the age of a plateau increases, the action 
of the rivers* and weathering increases, and the plateau 




A USABLE CHASM 



the earth's surface 55 

becomes more and more "dissected" until it may, at 
last, disappear, except that here and there portions 
of the old surface stand in bold relief on the low land 
or flat-topped table mountains, sometimes called 
mesas or buttes. 

69 The proximity of volcanoes to the sea is due 
to the deep fissures in the earth's crust, along the line 
of contact of the depressed ocean basin and the 
uplifted continent. Nowhere are the earth's strata 
more deeply broken than on the very edge of the 
continents; and it is along the mighty chasms caused 
by the upheaval of these vast land masses, that 
mountain chains, such as encircle the sunken basin 
of the Pacific, have been raised. There, also, vol- 
canic vents abound in long lines, following either the 
top or the foot of the mountain chains. Similar con- 
ditions exist in the zone of fracture. (G 16; H 52) 

70 The eastern continents are much more indented 
than tlie western continents, the northern hemis- 
phere than the southern, and the eastern than the 
western. 

71 New York has several depressions that furnish 
the great lines of travel and commerce and afford 
excellent agricultural regions. The plateau region 
in the western part has its temperature modified by 
the great lakes. The Catskill region is more or less 
protected by foothills, making it a great dairy section. 
The Adirondack region is more or less covered with 
forests and is the water shed for many rivers that 
are useful for power, floating logs, and the like. 
The climate of the Taconic region is more or less mod- 
ified by the Hudson river. See also 59. 



56 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

73 See 63, 64. 

74 When the forests are removed from a large 
portion of a river basin, the rains are no longer ab- 
sorbed quietly by the ground, but drain rapidly off 
its surface into the river-channels, causing an over- 
flow. The most destructive effects.are in early spring 
when the masses of floating ice become gorged in 
shallow places and back up the waters above. (H 140) 

75 Silt is finely divided gravel, sand, and mud 
transported and deposited by rivers. (H 142) 

A geyser is an intermittent hot or thermal spring. 

Water is a compound liquid made up of two parts 
of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. 

A spring is an outpouring of subterranean water. 

A river is a large stream of water collected from the 
surface and subterranean drainage of the adjacent 
territory. 

A water-shed is a ridge or elevation whi<jh sep- 
arates two opposite slopes. (H 137) 

A river system is a main stream with all its trib- 
utaries and branches. (H 137) 

A basin is the entire area of land which drains into 
the river system. (H 137) 

A channel is the depression through which the 
river flows. (H 137) 

A delta is an alluvial tract of country 4 near and 
between the diverging mouths of a river. 

Lakes are bodies of water that occupy depressions 
in the general drainage level of the land. (H 152) 

Waves are swinging motions of the water, caused 
by the friction of the wind on the surface. (H 168) 



WATER 



57 




Tides are periodical risings and fallings of the 
water that succeed each other with great regularity 
about every six hours. (H 169) 

A fiord is a deep inlet separating lofty headlands. 

76 Water is one of the best solvents of all common 
substances. During the constant washings of the 
continents by the rain the surfaces are cleansed from 
decaying animal and vegetable matters, which are 
partly dissolved and are thus carried in solution by 
the rivers into the ocean. The atmospheric waters 
in a similar way cleanse the air of many impurities. 
(H 128) 

Water is also instrumental in liberating the gas 
from limestone and thus carries off the lime in solu- 
tion. In this way the great limestone caves were 
made like Howe's cave, p. 58. 



58 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 59 

77 Mineral springs are divided into: calcareous 
which encrusts objects, as in parts of Italy, contain 
ing lime; siliceous containing silica, as in the geysers 
of the Yellowstone; sulphurous, containing sulphur 
as at Aix la Chapelle, France, and Clifton Springs, 
N. Y. ; chalybeate, containing iron, as in some of the 
Saratoga Springs; salt, containing salt, as in the Syra- 
cuse salt wells; alkaline, containing lime or soda, as 
the Vichy Spring, France; effervescing, containing 
large quantities of carbonic acid gas, as .the Apollin- 
aris springs of Germany, those of Vichy, France, 
and those of Saratoga Springs. (H 137) There are 
also fissure springs and siphon springs. 

78 When a river current is very slow the channel 
is characterized by a meander, or wandering. The 
current frequently wears away the bank on one side 
until it reaches the next turn, when part of the river 
flows through the old channel and a part through the 
new channel. The land thus surrounded is called 
a fluviatile island. (H 145) 

One of the channels is sometimes separated from 
the . other by a deposition of mud or sand. The 
water fills the old channel by soaking through the 
soil, and thus fluviatile lakes are formed. See 64. 

79 The lakes of new land areas are those of Florida. 
They are caused by the gradual filling up of shallow 
basins. 

The delta lakes of Louisiana are caused by the 
breaking through of the natural levees and leaving 
the low flats covered with shallow water. 



60 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 61 

Lagoon lakes along the Atlantic seaboard are shal- 
low bays shut off by sand-bars. See 936. 

Glacial lakes in the northern part of the United 
States, especially in New York, New England, Wis- 
consin, Minnesota are basins grooved by glaciers or 
by deposits damming up streams, or by irregular 
deposits of glacial streams. 

Earthquake lakes of south-eastern Missouri are the 
result of earthquakes. 

The playa lakes of Nevada were caused by the 
spreading out of waters over a level tract during the 
rainy season. (H 152) 

Salt lakes like Great Salt lake and others of that 
part of the United States are formed either by the 
isolation of part of the ocean, or by the formation of 
a sand-bar, or by an elevation of a part of the sea 
bottom, or by the continued concentration of river 
water in lakes with no outlet. The lakes then lose 
fresh water only by evaporation, and, since all river 
water contains saline substances, the lakes must 
be continually increasing in saltness. (H 156) 

80 See 79. Examples are the Dead sea in Syria, 
Lake Van in Turkey, and the Salt lakes of western 
United States. (H 156) 

81 Chautauqua, Otsego, Oneida, the Finger Lakes 
of central New York, and the Adirondack Lakes. 
They benefit the people by modifying the climate, 
supplying food, affording means of travel, furnishing 
summer resorts, and serving as reservoirs for storing 
up the water during spring freshet and floods. 

82 See 64, 78. 



62 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 63 

83 See question 79. The lake basins are sur- 
rounded by numerous old beaches and shore lines, 
which mark the height and limits which their water 
at some time reached. But these old shore lines are 
no longer level. They gradually rise towards the 
north and east. Algonquin beach on Lake Huron 
is 25 feet high at the southern end and 635 feet high 
at the northern. The depth of the lakes, the drown- 
ing of the St. Lawrence valley, the existence of marine 
fossils along the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake 
Champlain all go to show that the basin of the St. 
Lawrence has been subjected in the past to extensive 
depression and upheaval, which was in the nature 
of a tilting along a northeast and southwest line. 
(D 145) 

84 Fluvio-marine formations are deposits of silt 
and sand that form along the coast near and opposite 
the mouths of rivers, under the combined action of 
the river-current and the tides of the ocean. A bar 
or sandpit is formed at some little distance from the 
mouth of the river, where the outflowing river cur- 
rent and the inflowing tide tend to neutralize each 
other. Illustrations are the coast of North Carolina 
and other places along the Atlantic coast. 

85 The central plain of North America is drained 
by 4 large river systems, (a) the Mackenzie into the 
Arctic; (6) Saskatchewan and Nelson into Hudson 
bay; (c) the St. Lawrence into the Gulf£of St. Law- 
rence; and (d) the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico. 
The basin of the Mississippi occupies the long slopes 
of the Rocky mountains and the^ Appalachians. 



64 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 



65 



An uplift of the coastal plain bordering on the Gulf 
of Mexico has resulted in engrafting the Red, Ten- 
nessee, White and Arkansas upon the Mississippi 
system. The Yukon, Columbia, and Colorado drain 
the region west of the predominant system. There 
are many separate streams east of the Appalachians, 
some of the most important being the Potomac, 
Susquehanna, Hudson and Connecticut. {H 149) 

Asia possesses the most extensive inland drainage 
of all the continent. The plateaus are surrounded 




by lofty mountains; the rain fall is scant over the 
plateaus, and the waters can find no outlet to the 
sea except by overflowing the mountain barriers. 
The outer slopes are drained by some of the largest 
rivers in the world, (a) The Lena, Yenisei, and Obe 
drain the great northern plain (b) The Amoor, 



WATER 67 

Hoang-Ho, Yang-tse-Kiang, and Cambodia drain 
the eastern slope, (c) The southern slopes are drained 
into the Indian ocean by means of the Irrawady, 
Brahmapootra, Ganges, Indus, Tigris, and Euphrates. 
The plateau of Thibet is perhaps the greatest drainage 
center on the globe. (H 151) 

In Europe the Alps are drained by 4 large rivers — 
the Rhone, Rhine, Danube and Po. These all have 
large deltas. The great low plain is drained towards 
the north and west by the Petchora and Dwina into 
the Arctic; by the Duna, Nieman, Vistula and Oder 
into the Baltic; by the Elbe and Weser into the 
North sea. It is drained toward the south and east 
by the Volga and Ural into the Caspian sea; by the 
Don, Dnieper, and Dniester into the Sea of Azov 
and the Black sea. All of the peninsulas have small 
rivers. (H 150) 

South America has three great river systems — the 
Orinoco in the north, the Amazon near the centre, 
and the LaPlata at the south. . The Magdalena also 
drains the north. There are no large rivers west of 
the predominant system. (H 150) 

86 The Nile is the most famous flood plain in 
history. For a distance of 1,500 miles above its 
mouth, this river flows through a rainless desert 
and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which 
fall upon the highlands about its sources produce in 
summer a rise of the water, which overflows the val- 
ley on either side. Upon the sediment thus deposited 
the people sow their grain and often reap an abundant 
harvest. Should the river fail to rise, famine is likely 



68 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 69 

to follow. The lower Nile valley became one of the 
earliest centers of civilization and has supported a 
dense population for more than 7,000 years. (D 164) 

87 (a) The northern and northwestern slopes are 
drained by the Genesee, Black, and Oswegatchie 
rivers into the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario; (6) 
the southern slope by the Allegheny into the Ohio, 
and the Susquehanna and Delaware into the Atlantic 
ocean; (c) the central and eastern part by the Mo- 
hawk and Hudson into New York bay; The Mo- 
hawk and Hudson rivers with the Erie canal have 
made it possible to connect the Great lakes with tide 
water at New York. 

The movement of goods along this route, which 
has aided in the growth of many towns and cities, 
has especially favored the cities at the two ends, 
New York and Buffalo. The sinking of the coast at 
the mouth of the Hudson has given New York a 
broad harbor; this and her great overland trade from 
the north and west have made her the largest city 
on the western continent. The valley of the Black 
river has opened up the northern part of the state to 
travel and commerce. The Susquehanna and Del- 
aware rivers have aided in opening up the coal fields 
of Pennsylvania, while the Allegheny river gives 
direct communication through the Ohio to the west- 
ern and southern Mississippi states. ( T 301) 

88 Africa, being low in the interior, with high 
mountain walls on her borders, is characterized, like 
the Americas, by the union of her smaller river systems 
into a few large streams, which drain nearly the en- 



70 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




BLACK RIVER PALLS, WATERTOWN 



WATER 7 1 

tire continent. These embrace the Nile, emptying 




into the Mediterranean; the Zambezi into the Indian 
ocean; and the Orange, Congo, Niger and Senegal into 
the Atlantic. (H 151) 

89 Since the eroded mineral matter is heavier 
than water, it will settle in all parts of the river 



BHH 



M 






"t: 



:? 










WATER 73 

course. It will, however, remain for a more or less 
extended time only in those places where the velocity 
of the river is comparatively slight. These places 
are (a) in the channel of the river; (6) on the banks; 
(c) over the alluvial flats or flood grounds; (d) at the 
mouth ;(e) and along the coast near the mouth. (21143) 

90 Water containing carbonic acid possesses 
marked powers of dissolving limestone rocks. It 
settles into openings in the earth's surface and work- 
ing its way through subterranean channels dissolves 
out the limestone and bears away the lime in solution, 
caverns. (H 74) 

Cascades are always found in young rivers. Soft 
rocks are cut more rapidly than hard, and therefore 
rapids and falls occur where a degrading stream flows 
from a hard to a soft layer. Such falls are very com- 
mon in regions of horizontal strata; where hard layers 
retard erosion while weaker layers beneath are re- 
moved. Central New York abounds in cascades. 

91 Because many of the river channels are deep 
and narrow and full of cascades and rapids. An old 
river system has few falls, the current is very slow, 
and it at times covers its banks with alluvial deposits. 

92 In youth the river is filled with falls, has steep 
banks and frequently in its course extends into lakes. 
It gradually wears away the soil, its falls work far- 
ther and farther towards its source, and its lakes 
begin to fill with sediment. When a river becomes 
mature it has reached its grade level, it no longer wears 
away its channel, and its lakes are filled. Finally 
when its banks are all levelled off and the river de- 



74 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 75 

posits its silt over the surrounding country, and there 
is no longer any current because it has reached sea 
level, then a river has become senous or old. Niagara, 
Colorado and the St. Lawrence are young rivers. 
The lower ends of rivers that are forming deltas are 
reaching the mature stage. 

93 (a) Sometimes the wind blows the sand into 
the bay or gulf, sometimes the wave wears off rock 
particles, and sometimes the rivers bring down the 
sand. The tides, waves and currents are constantly 
shifting and placing this material. It is generally 
dropped at the entrance to bays, building bars across 
them. If there is a river current an opening will, be 
maintained through the bar. If there is no current 
the bar may completely seal the bay. Cape Cod and 
Sandy Hook are built of sand worn from the shore- 
rocks. 

(b) Sounds or shore lagoons are formed where the 
sea bottom has a very gentle slope. The waves 
break at some distance from the shore and the sand 
they carry is deposited, forming a barrier beach 
along the line of greatest disturbance. The strip of 
water finally enclosed between the land and the bar- 
rier beach is called a lagoon. (D 231) For flood plains 
see questions 82, 84 and H 144. 

94 See question 88. 

95 In the lower courses of rivers, the velocity 
being slight, comparatively small obstacles suffice 
to turn the waters from their course. The river 
channel is therefore characterized by wide bends 
or curves called meanders. At the bend of the river 



76 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 77 

the main current is directed against one of its banks, 
where rapid erosion takes place, and this material is 
deposited farther down, thus damming up the course. 
In time the river breaks through in a new place and 
another bend is made. A good example is the lower 
course of the Mississippi. (H 145) 

96 The rivers are constantly dissolving from their 
channels large quantities of mineral matters, and 
pouring it into the ocean. In this way immense 
quantities of mineral ingredients have been dissolved 
out from the crust, and thrown into the ocean. Bor- 
der seas and the parts of the ocean where great evap- 
oration takes place are slightly more salt than other 
parts. Sea water is transparent and colorless in 
small quantities. The color of the ocean is due to 
the scattering of the waves that compose white light, 
and the reflection of some of them, a green, blue or 
indigo. The color of the Red sea is due to the mi- 
nute organisms that float in it. Phosphorescence 
is due to animalculae in the water coming in contact 
with the air. ( T 182) 

97 The Pacific is oval in outline, broadly open at 
the south, and nearly enclosed at the north. The 
Atlantic is widely open at the north and affords the 
only complete channel for the interchange of polar 
and equatorial waters. The Atlantic is the more 
branching and the Pacific has the more border seas. 

The Pacific has far more islands than the Atlantic. 

The Pacific occupies about 3^ of the water area 
of the globe and the Atlantic about 34- 

The greatest depth of the Atlantic is about 27,000 
feet; of the Pacific 31,600 feet, 



78 



KEGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 79 

98 The Atlantic basin is deeper generally on the 
American side. The deepest portions form a great 
trough in three parts which are severally parallel 
to the American shores. The North consists of two 
parallel valleys, the western averaging about 18,000 
feet in depth, the eastern about 13,000. These are 
separated by a swell less than 10,000 feet deep. Be- 
tween New Foundland and Ireland lies the "telegraph 
plateau. ' ' Near the continents the sea is often shal- 
low, the bottom seeming to be only an extension of 
the adjacent lands. Opposite New York for more 
than 100 miles the depth does not greatly exceed 600 
feet. 

99 It has been said that the ocean bottom is 
like a submerged continent, with mountain chains, 
valleys, and the like. On the contrary it is composed 
of far more uniform and extensive plains and huge 
table lands. Mountain chains are found only near 
the continents, as parts of the continental structure; 
and when reaching above the surface of the sea, they 
form chains of continental islands. The bottom of 
the sea is convex, being a vast area of the earth's 
crust depressed below the regular curve of the sphere; 
while the continents are smaller areas, elevated some- 
what above this curve. On these depressions, the 
water, originally covering the entire surface of the 
sphere, has collected, in obedience to the law of grav- 
ity, filling up the irregularities in the spherical out- 
line, and forming oceans. (G 58; H 164; D 245) 

100 The western half of the Pacific ocean contains 
nearly all the very deep depressions. The contin- 



80 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 81 

ental shelves of the Pacific are comparatively narrow, 
and in the cold climates make the world's best fishing 
grounds. The Australasian islands rest on a great 
continental shelf. The bed of the Pacific is traversed 
by numerous ridges which have a general northwest 
and southeast trend, and bear upon their tops many 
small volcanic islands. (D 245; G 58; H 164) 

101 Waves are the alternate rise and fall of suc- 
cessive ridges of water. They result from a dis- 
turbance of the equilibrium of the surface waters, 
by action of the wind, earthquakes, volcanic upheav- 
als, and other disturbances. The advance of the wave 
wave in shallow water is a forward movement of the 
water, but in deeper water it is a communication of 
the wave movement to successive portions of the sea 
The swell is the movement after the disturbance 
which caused the original waves has ceased to act. 

Waves are concave in the trough and more or less 
convex at the crest. In many places on the coasts 
waves dash with great force and are rapidly wearing 
away and changing the coast lines. They are doing 
a great work in helping to level down the continents. 
(H 168) 

Tides are periodical risings and fallings of the water 
that succeed each other about every six hours. Un- 
like waves they affect the ocean from top to bottom. 
They are caused by the attraction of the sun and 
moon. 

Ocean currents are forward movements of the 
water, not unlike broad rivers. They differ from the 



82 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY 




OCEAN CURRENTS 

surrounding waters through which they flow in col- 
or, density, and temperature. The principal cause 
is the difference in density and temperature between 
polar and equatorial water. The constant winds are 
also an aid to some of the constant currents, as is also 
the rotation of the earth. See 103-5. (H 177) 

102 See 101. For effects see also H 182. 

103 The parent wave, which originates in the 
central and southern Pacific, moves on most swiftly 
in the broad, deep and unobstructed basin lying south 
of the Tropic of Capricorn. There it also preserves 
its normal direction westward, and its crest extends 
nearly north and south. In the equatorial Pacific 
its progress is obstructed by many islands. In the 
northeastern portion the tidal wave is deflected 
northward and eastward. The deflected wave strikes 
the American shores between California and Alaska, 



WATER 83 

at the same hours at which the direct wave strikes 
the Asiatic shores between Kamchatka and Japan. 
A reflected wave also starts in the longitude of the 
Galapagos Islands, and, advancing eastward and 
southward along the South American coasts, meets 
the tidal wave from the south Atlantic at Cape Horn. 
(G 62; H 173) 

104 The principal part of the north equatorial 
current of the Pacific turns northward off southeast- 
ern Asia and is thence known as the Japan or Kuro 
Sivo (black water because of its dark blue color). 
It is the return current of the north Pacific just as the 
Gulf stream is the return current of the north At- 
lantic. South of the Aleutian islands it is deflected 
from its northward course, and crosses the oceans. 
The greater part of it returns along the American 
shore as the California current reenters the north 
Equatorial current. A very little of the Japan cur- 
rent drifts to the north along Alaska. 

The temperature of the current is quite warm 
and the prevailing winds are westerly. Blowing 
over this current the air. becomes laden with vapor 
that contains a great amount of latent heat. This 
imparts to western North America a climate much 
warmer than that of the same latitudes on the eastern 
shores. The moisture thus carried to the vegeta- 
tion makes the western United States one of the most 
productive regions outside of the tropics. (G 65; H 
181; D 266) 

105 For cause see question 101. The principal 
currents are the north and south equatorial, the Gulf 



84 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 85 

stream, the South Atlantic, the Greenland, and the 
cold currents coming into the Atlantic from the Arc- 
tic and the Antarctic oceans. (G 67; H 180) 

106 (a) When the sun and moon act together, on 
the same hemisphere, the high tides thus produced 
are called spring tides. (6) They occur twice every 
revolution of the moon — once at full and once at new 
moon. The highest spring tides occur a short time 
before the March and the September equinoxes, when 
the sun is over the equator. Neap tides, on the con- 
trary, are caused when the sun and moon act at righ 
angles to each other. High tide is then under the 
moon and low tide under the sun. Neap tides are 
more noticeable about the time of the June and Dec- 
cember solstices. (H 173) 

107 See 101. 

108 See 104, 110. 

109 See 106. 

110 (a) The warmer, lighter water of the equator- 
ial regions tend to flow on top of the colder, heavier 
water, and would spread out toward the poles were 
it not for the rotation of the earth, which causes it 
to move westward in great, broad streams known as 
equatorial currents. 

(b) The south Equatorial current advances from 
the coast of Guinea westward to the eastern point 
of South America, where it divides, the smaller di- 
vision flowing southward along the coast of South 
America, known as the Brazilian current, and finally 
turning southeast and joining the cold Antarctic 
current. The main portion of the original current 



86 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




WATER 87 

continues westward, passing the mouth of the Am- 
azon and the coast of Guinea, and joining the north 
Equatorial current it traverses the Carriebean sea, 
and the Gulf stream and issues as the Gulf stream. 
(G67;i?180) 

(c) The water of this current being warm and the 
prevailing winds of tropical South America being 
toward the west, they give to that continent east of 
the Andes a warm, moist climate. The same can be 
said of western Europe as the result of the proximity 
of the Gulf stream and the prevailing westerly winds. 
See 104. (H 200) 

111 See 104. 

112 Rotation of the earth, prevailing winds, 
shapes of the continental masses, differences in den- 
sity and temperature. 

113 See 104. 

114 When considerable differences of level are 
caused by the tides, in parts of the ocean separated 
by narrow channels, the waters in their effort to re- 
gain their equilibrium, move with great velocity, 
producing what are called races. At times several 
races meet each other obliquely, producing what are 
called whirlpools. These occur near the channel 
islands and off the coast of Scotland. The maelstrom 
off the coast of Norway, is a terrible whirlpool com- 
bined with a backward and forward movement of 
the waters. (H 177) 

115 See 112. 

116 (a) See 110. (b) Its direction is westward 
(c) It occupies the greater part of the Torrid zone, 



88 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




Wort East 



WATEE »y 

that lies in the Pacific, north of the equator. It 
begins near the American shore and flows almost 
unobstructed to the Phillipine islands, where it di- 
vides ; the southern portion entering the Indian archi- 
pelago, while the northern branch moving northward 
becomes the Japan current described in question 104. 
(d) Equatorial currents tend to make a warm, 
moist climate wherever their prevailing winds reach. 

117 See charts in any good physical geography, 
(H 168; D 256) 

118 See 104, and H 182. 

119 The Gulf stream first becomes apparent near 
the northeast coast of Cuba, and advances to the 
coast, expanding in breadth, till in the latitude of 
New York it turns eastward to the Azores, where 
it divides, the main branch going southward along 
the African coast and joining again the North equa- 
torial current. The northern branch continues its 
northeast course to the British isles and Norway. 
The prevailing winds from this warm stream flowing 
over western Europe give it a much milder climate 
than in corresponding latitudes in northeastern 
America. 

120 An artesian well is an opening formed either 
by nature or by man into a reservoir of subterranean 
water which lies in a basin-shaped hollow of imper- 
vious 7 layer or strata. The pressure of the water 
in^the upper parts of the reservoir forces the stream 
up through the opening. The deeper the spring 
or^well the warmer the interior seems to be. 

121 A^spring is simply an opening out of which 



90 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




MONSOON OVER THE INDIAN OCEAN IN JANUARY 




THE SAME IN JULY 



THE ATMOSPHERE 91 




water runs that has soaked into the soil or cracks of 
the rocks above. 

122 For Bunsen's theory of geysers see H 134. 
Examples are: Iceland, New Zealand, the Yellowstone 
National park. 

123 A periodic spring is one that acts on the prin- 
ciple of -a siphon, for the explanation of which con- 
sult any good text book on physics. 

124 Climate is the condition of a place in relation 
to its temperature and moisture. 

Monsoons are winds that blow from a certain di- 
rection for part of the year and for the rest of the 
year from quite another quarter. 

Glaciers are vast masses of ice, filling mountain 
valleys, slowly moving toward lower levels. 

A magnet is a body which has the property of at- 
tracting iron. 

An isotherm is a line on the earth's surface along 
which the same annual temperature prevails. 



92 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

A meteor is a transient luminous body seen in the 
atmosphere or in a higher region. 

A barograph is an instrument which makes on a 
strip of paper a continous record of atmospheric 
pressures. 

A moraine is made up of various forms of ice-borne 
rack waste. There are four kinds: ground, lateral, 
terminal and medial moraines. See 199. 

Mirage is an optical effect generally seen in deserts, 
due to total reflection of light caused by difference in 
temperature of two strata of air. 

An isobar is a line joining places on the earth's sur- 
face having the same atmospheric pressure throughout 
the year. 

A simoon is a hot and violent wind, in Arabia and 
the Sahara. See 168, 164. 

125 When air is heated or made more damp by 
addition of water vapor, it expands and becomes 
less dense than the surrounding air, which crowds 
in from all sides and buoys the lighter air upward. 
Every wind that blows is a part of some convection 
circuit. The direction and force of winds depend 
upon differences of atmospheric pressure. (D) 

126 Nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid, watery 
vapor, dust particles (H) in the following proportions : 
Nitrogen 76.95, oxygen 20.61, water vapor, 1.40, 
argon, 1.00, carbon dioxide .03. (D) 

127 The barometer is an instrument for measuring 
the pressure of the atmosphere. It depends upon the 
principle that the* weight of the atmosphere will bal- 
ance a column jDf mercuryabout 30 inches high. A 



THE ATMOSPHERE 93 

glass tube, about 33 inches in length, is closed at one 
end, filled with pure mercury, and carefully heated 
so as to drive out all the air. Placing a finger over 
the open end the tube is reversed and dipped below 
the surface of the mercury in a cup or other vessel. 
On removing the finger a column of mercury remains 
in the tube. The height of this column varies accord- 
ing to the pressure of the atmosphere. (H; D 400) 

128 See 126. Oxygen combines freely with nearly 
all the elements, and in its numerous compounds forms 
about }/2 the whole weight of the globe. Its func- 
tion is to support combustion. Nitrogen is extremely 
inert and enters into combination with other elements 
with difficulty. Without it birds could not fly, 
clouds and smoke would settle to the ground, and the 
force of the winds would be greatly diminished. 
Argon resembles nitrogen. Carbon dioxide is a com- 
pound of oxygen and carbon formed in active growing 
plants and given off by them in respiration. It is also 
produced by combustion and escapes from volcanoes, 
and mineral springs. It is an important food supply 
of plants and plays an important part in the economy 
of nature. Watery vapor when cooled condenses and 
falls as rain or snow. (D 274) Dust particles in the 
air are of importance in determining the temperature, 
in scattering or diffusing sunlight, and, possibly, in 
aiding of determining the formation of fog and clouds 
under certain circumstances. (H 188) 

129 At the sea level the pressure is about 14.74 
pounds to the square inch of surface. If the barom- 
eter is carried to higher elevations, there will be less 



94 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

air above it, and the mercury will fall. Knowing that 
the atmosphere will support a column of mercury 
about 30 inches high at sea level, one can ascertain 
the proportional height from the corresponding 
height of the column at any elevation. (D 276) 

130 (a) Distribution of land and water areas; 
(6) elevation; (c) direction of the slopes; (d) position 
of mountain ranges; (e) nature of the surface; (/) dis- 
tribution of winds and moisture; (g) ocean currents. 
(H 198-200) 

131 Astronomical climate is that which would 
result were the earth's surface entirely uniform and 
of but one kind; i. e. either all land or all water. 
Physical climate is that which actually exists. (H 193) 

132 (a) Warmer, (6) colder. During the summer 
the ocean takes up a great amount of heat which it 
holds in a latent state and gradually gives out during 
the winter, thus equalizing the temperature. The 
land on the contrary more readily absorbs and loses 
the heat. (H 198) 

133 Dublin is warmer in winter because it is af- 
fected as in 132 by the surrounding ocean. 

134 Owing to the prolonged continuance of day 
light and darkness near the poles, the daily changes 
of weather are obliterated and merged with the sea- 
sonal. There are but two seasons, 9 months winter- 
3 months summer. (H 206; D 346) 

135 See / and g in 130. 

136 See / and g in 130, D 343, H 181. 

137 See 130. 

138 Some time after the days begin to grow 



THE ATMOSPHERE 95 

shorter, because of the accumulated heat of the 
earth's surface in the northern hemisphere. This is 
clear, since more heat is accumulated through the 
day than is lost by radiation at night. (M 71) 

139 See 130. 

140 It will be colder. (D 302) The barometer 
falls before a thunder storm. (D 326) 

141, 2 See 130. See charts D 314, 316. 

143 See 132. 

144 See 130. 

145 Isothermal lines are lines joining places on the 
earth's surface having the same mean temperature. 
They do not coincide with the parallels because of the 
difference in temperature as affected by elevation, 
ocean currents, direction of slopes, prevailing winds 
etc. (H 197; D 294) 

146 See 145. 

147 See any map showing isothermal lines. 

148 See 147, 145. 

149 Winds are caused by differences of density 
arising from differences of temperature. For di- 
agram see H 201. 

150 The zone of equatorial calms, sometimes called 
the doldrums, lies near the equator, between the lim- 
its of the northeast and the southeast trades, over 
the zone of least barometric pressure. The boun- 
daries of the zone vary with the season, moving north 
during the northern summer, and to the south dur- 
ing its winter. It is a region of humid, sultry air and 
frequent rains. 

In the zones of the trades the winds blow with 



96 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




THE ATMOSPHERE 97 

marked regularity from the northeast in the northern 
hemisphere, and from the southeast in the southern 
hemisphere. The air moves from the belts of high 
pressure toward the equator on each side and is de- 
flected westward by the rotation of the earth. They 
blow with great steadiness and are an aid to navi- 
gation. Hence their name. See page 92. 

151 Thunder storms in the United States and 
North Atlantic are apt to take a progressive movement 
in the direction of the general air current, i. e. , west- 
ward, and to broaden out as they advance. (D 326) 

Tornadoes occur in Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, 
and Georgia. They travel toward the northeast with 
terrific force, causing great destruction. See chart 
D 134-6. (D 323) 

The monsoon regions are the Indian ocean, Gulf 
of Guinea, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean sea. (J3"208; 
D 307) 

152 Monsoons are periodical winds which blow 
regularly in one direction during part of the year,, 
and regularly in the opposite direction the rest of the 
year. They are really huge land and sea breezes 
caused by the difference in temperature between the 
warmer and colder halves of the year. They occur 
in the region of the trades, and are in reality trade 
winds which have been turned out of their course^ 
by the unequal heating of land and water. See page 92. 

153 (b) Soon after sunrise the land becomes warm- 
er than the ocean and the warm air over the land 
ascends, while the cooler air from the sea blows- 



:98 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




C// air 



C/tu th. 




toward the land as a sea breeze (a) about the middle 
of the afternoon it gradually diminishes till a calm 
succeeds about sundown. Soon the land becomes 
cooler than the ocean a land breeze sets in toward 
the latter as the warm air ascends over the ocean. 
(H 207) 

Similar breezes occur on great lakes, and at the foot 
of mountains under the sun's rays the inclined 
slopes of the mountains have a higher temperature 
than the atmosphere. Hence the ascending currents 
of air up the mountain sides and up valleys during 
the hottest part of the day, and the reverse during the 
night. (G 78; H 208) 

154 From the north. They are due to the spiral 
inflow of winds toward the area of low pressure. 
These winds are usually dry because they become 
warmer as they advance, while the warm winds from 
the south grow colder as they advance and thus 
.bring rain or snow. A sudden fall in temperature 



THE ATMOSPHERE 99 

often causes the moisture to be frozen in fine ice crys- 
tals which driven by a high wind produces what is 
known as a blizzard. (H 215; D 315) 

155 Periodic winds as those which for regular 
periods blow alternately in opposite directions, like 
land and sea breezes; mountain and valley breezes; 
monsoons and the return currents from the deserts. 
See 152 and 153 for description. 

156 See 150. 

157 They are the most famous monsoons in the 
world, blowing from the northeast for six months and 
from the southwest for six months. 

During the summer the great deserts and inland 
basins of central Asia become intensely heated, and 
the air ascends from them in immense columns. 
Cooler air rushes in from three directions. So strong 
are the inrushing winds that they often reverse the 
trades themselves. During the next six months this 
is reversed. The summer monsoons coming from the 
sea give southern Asia copious rains. The northeast 
and northwest monsoons coming from the land are 
for the most part dry. (M 80; H 208; D 307) 

158 In the Indian ocean the trades are deflected 
by the overheating of the continents of Asia, Africa, 
and Australia. In the northern portion of the Indian 
ocean the northeast trades prevail during the colder 
half of the year. During the remainder the overheat- 
ed Asiatic continent deflects the trades, and they 
blow from the southwest. In the southern portion 
of the ocean the Australian continent similarly affects 
the trades. Here the winds blow southeast during 



100 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




THE ATMOSPHERE 101 

the southern winter, and northwest during the south- 
ern summer. The monsoons of the Gulf of Guinea are 
caused by the great column of ascending air over the 
highly heated Sahara. This causes an inrush of 
cooler air from the Gulf of Guinea on one side and 
from the Mediterranean on the other side. The 
former comes from the southwest, and the latter, 
called the Etesian, from the northeast. 

The monsoons of the Mexican gulf and the Caribbean 
sea are caused by the overheating of the Mississippi 
valley on the same principle as already explained. 
There are also well marked monsoon regions in western 
Mexico, in Texas called "northers", on both coasts 
of South America, in Arabia and Syria called "si- 
moons". There are minor monsoons known as the 
sirocco of Italy and Sicily; the solano of Spain and the 
khamsin of Egypt. These are hot, dry winds often 
carrying great quantities of dust and sand. (H 208; 
M 80; D 307) 

159 Cyclones are caused by the overheating of a 
certain portion of land from which ascends a huge 
column of heated air. Into this area from all sides 
rushes air, forced in by the higher barometric pres- 
sure from without. Because of the earth's rotation 
the inflowing currents assume a spiral or rotary mo- 
tion around the heated area, while in the center the 
ascending heated column is like the draft of some 
great chimney. As the inblowing winds come near 
the heated area, they must blow with increased vi- 
olence, to permit the same quantity of air to pass 
over the constantly narrowing path. The direction 



102 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

of the whirl in the northern hemisphere is opposite 
to the hands of a watch, while it is with the hands of 
a watch in the southern hemisphere. The vapor of 
the inflowing air is rapidly condensed, thus liberating 
a great amount of latent heat, which in turn causes 
the air to mount faster and higher and thus condense 
more of its vapor. The extraordinary violence of 
cyclones is due to the principal just explained. The 
more vapor in the air the more violent the cyclone. 

There are five great regions of cyclones: near the 
West Indies, called hurricanes; near the China sea, 
called typhoons; in the south Indian ocean; in the 
south Pacific; and east of Australia. These are 
caused by differences of temperature, and usually oc- 
cur about the times of the changes of the regular 
winds. They all originate in the tropical regions. 
During the months of August, September and Oct- 
ober the West Indies are subject to tropical cyclones 
called hurricanes, which approach the United States 
in a great spiral with a forward movement from the 
southeast and depart toward the northeast across 
the Atlantic. This change of direction is doubtless 
due to its lower portion being in the current of the 
trades, and so pass westward, while its upper portion 
is carried north by anti-trades beyond the trop- 
ics it is influenced by the northeastward anti-trades. 
(D 314; M 81; H 209) 

161-6 See 159. 

164 The simoon is a hot, dry, suffocating wind, 
which blows over Syria and Arabia, heaping up great 
piles of sand, and often covering up whole caravans. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 103 

The dust in the air is so thick as to obscure the sun, 
and the dust particles absorb so much heat as to some- 
times raise the temperature to 130° Fahr. (H 215; 
M 80) 

165 (a) The Chinese typhoon is governed by the 
same causes and exhibits the same phenomena as- 
other cyclones explained in 159. It occurs at the 
change of the monsoon, after the greatest heat of 
summer. (H 210; D 319) 

166 Invisible water vapor rises from every water 
surface, from masses of snow and ice, and from moist 
earth. This vapor is only about 3-5 as heavy as air, 
so that it is easily carried from place to place. Warm 
air can hold more vapor than cold air, and dry air 
absorbs moisture much more rapidly than moist air. 
winds and breezes increase the evaporation. When 
precipitated vapor becomes visible as dew, frost, mist r 
fog, haze, cloud, rain, sleet, hail and snow. 

167 That any precipitation may occur the air 
must be cooled below its dew point. Dew is deposited 
at night when objects on the earth's surface are colder 
than the atmosphere. The air coming in contact 
with these colder objects has its temperature lowered 
below the dew point, and deposits the moisture it 
can no longer contain. If there is a strong wind 
the moisture is mostly carried away. If it is a cloudy 
night the objects on the earth's surface retain their 
heat, the clouds acting as a blanket, and then the air 
is not cooled below the dew point. Hoar frost is 
frozen dew. 



104 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

Fogs, mist, haze are formed by minute drops of 
water suspended in the air near the earth's surface. 

Clouds are formed when a mass of warm air is 
mingled with a mass of cold air, provided especially 
if the warm air is the moister. 

Rain is caused when the condensation of the clouds 
continues till the drops are too large to be supported. 
Rain may be produced by the clouds or by a mass 
or air reaching a change of latitude, by change of alti- 
tude, and by the mingling of masses of warm and 
cold air. Hail and sleet are rain frozen while falling. 
Snow is caused by the condensation taking place at 
or below the freezing point, the vapor crystallizing 
into snow flakes. (D 280; H 221; T 36) 

168 The actual amount of water vapor in the air 
represents absolute humidity. Relative humidity is 
the percentage of water vapor contained in the air 
compared with the amount which the air at that tem- 
perature could contain if it were saturated. Thus 
the relative humidity of saturated air at a temperature 
of 60° F. is 100 per cent for at that temperature no 
more water vapor can be held. But if the temper- 
ature is raised a few degrees the air becomes capable 
of containing more water vapor, and the relative 
humidity is less than 100 per cent. (T 36-37; D 281) 

The temperature at which air containing a given 
amount of moisture becomes saturated is known as 
the dew point, for then vapor must be condensed. 
(T 37; D 282) 

169 See 168. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 105 

170 The mean annual rainfall is the average 
amount of rain which falls during a given time. Know- 
ing the amount of rain that falls for ten years, the 
average annual rainfall may be ascertained by dividing 
the whole amount by ten. It is determined at a given 
place by the use of the rain gauge or pluviometer. 
(if 232) The ann-iis.l rain fall in the temperate zones 
of America is about 39 inches, while in Europe it is 
but 34; in the tropics of America 115; in the eastern 
continent 77. In the United States it is greatest 'at 
Alaska, Sitka, 112 inches; at Neah bay, Washington 
105, at Philadelphia about 47, and in the Mohave 
desert less than 2. (if 232; D 333) 

171 Since the trades are generally dry winds, 
it is only when their temperature is consider-ably 
decreased that they can cause rain. The~ rains are 
most apt to occur when the sun is directly over head 
and the ascending columns of air are strong. Hence 
it rains freely during a few months in summer, (if 230 ; 
D 336) 

172 Dew is heavier in a valley than on a hill top 
because there is more moisture in the ground there 
to evaporate, and because the cooler and heavier 
air settles down into the valleys and lifts the warm- 
er air out. For excellent treatment of the subject 
see D 286. 

173 See 168. 

174 A pitcher of ice water brought into a warm 
room will soon be covered with moisture due to the 
condensation of the watery vapor of the air coming 
into contact with the colder pitcher. 



106 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

175 See 172, 168. 

176 Answers will vary according to location. See 
170 and consult charts in any good physical geography. 

177 See 166. 

178 Over the equator where the northeast and 
southeast tradewinds meet there is a region of calms 
extending around the earth, Since the air in this 
belt is warmed, it contains much water vapor, and 
it is a very rainy belt because this humid air rises 
by convection and cools dynamically until the dew 
point is reached. Therefore during the day the sky 
becomes cloudy and rains fall. (T 74; H 205) 

179 The position of mountain ranges greatly 
affects the distribution of rainfall. Prevailing moist 
winds deposit their moisture on one side of a moun- 
tain range and thus are dry and vaporless when they 
reach the other side. The eastern slopes of the trop- 
ical Andes are well watered while the western are dry 
and barren. South of the mouth of the LaPlatte the 
reverse takes place, making southern Chili fertile 
and the eastern slopes of the Andes comparatively 
dry. In India the Himalayas face the southwest 
monsoon filled with vapor, making that country very 
fertile, while the plateaus north of these mountains 
are almost rainless. The Cascade and Sierra Nevada 
mts. have a similar influence in western United States. 

180 Rainbows are arches of the prismatic colors 
caused by the dispersion of the light during its pas- 
sage through the falling drops of rain. The rays 



THE ATMOSPHERE 



107 




entering the drops are reflected from the interior 
surfaces farthest from the sun, and emerge separated 
into the prismatic colors. 

A secondary bow is sometimes seen with the colors 
reversed. It is caused by the light which is twice re- 
flected from the back of the drops. (H 259; M 99) 

Halos and coronae are rings of prismatic colors 
surrounding the sun and moon. The former is caused 
by the presence of snow crystals in the air, and the 
latter by small quantities of condensed vapor in the 
air. (#260; M 99) 

Mirage is an optical delusion caused by the re- 
fraction and reflection of rays of light as they pass 
through layers of air of different density. (H 260 ; M 99 

The blue color of the sky is due to small ice crystals, 
to small particles of water or to dust particles sus- 
pended in the air. It is a clearer blue on pleasant 



108 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




THE ATMOSPHERE 109 

days and in the higher regions because these particles 
are finer on pleasant day and in the higher regions. 
(H 260) 

Sunset tints are caused either by the dispersion of 
some of the rays, or by refraction. In the former 
case but a few of the colors reach the eye, thus giving 
that particular tint to the sky. Sometimes particles 
in the air also give beautiful tints to the sky at sunset. 
(H 260) 

181 See 179. 

182 On the amount of snow, the temperature, 
and the inclination of the slope. (H 238; D 108) 

183 They are due to the cooling of the warm, 
moist air of the Gulf stream by'the cold air from the 
Labrador current. (H 225) 

184 Plateaus usually receive less rain because 
they are surrounded by mountain chains that rob 
the air of its moisture. Moreover, the air over 
plateaus is warmer than the air at corresponding 
heights over low plains and valleys, and so does not 
condense the moisture. (H 233) 

185 The Arabian desert is situated in that great 
dry belt which extends from western Africa eastward 
along south of the Mediterranean sea and north of 
the Himalaya mountains. Over parts of this region 
the trades are dry continental winds. The mountains 
condense the moisture before the air reaches other 
parts, and finally much of this section, like Arabia 
and eastward, is a vast plateau. See 184. 



110 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

186 To warn agriculturalists of coming storms 
and frosts, dwellers in valleys against floods, internal 
navigators of storms and early winter, and shipmas- 
ters on the ocean of coming storms. For a full ex- 
planation see H 343. 

187 Primary forms: Cirrus, cumulus, nimbus, 
stratus. Secondary, cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, and 
cumulo-stratus. For explanation of these terms see 
H 226; D 282. Conditions to produce rainfall are 
explained in 166. 

188 See 187. 

190 It is what is commonly called northern lights, 
appearing as a great arch of light in both the northern 
and southern latitudes. It is caused by the passage 
of electricity through the rare air of the upper regions. 
(H 254) 

191 See 179. 

192 See 166. 

193 See 185. 

194 See 180. Also see T 233. 

195 See 180 and excellent explanation in T 233. 

196 In the Arctic and Antarctic regions the ice 
forms along the shores to a depth of 10 or 15 feet. 
This is broken up by the tides, waves and currents 
and forced in great confusion into packs or floes of 
immense thickness. From this mass huge masses 
are broken off and float out to sea as icebergs. Again 
some huge glacier extending far into the ocean may 
be broken off. They carry out and deposit in the 
sea a vast amount of rock and other earth matter. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 



111 



They are always found floating in currents coming 
from the polar regions, and are a source of much 
danger to navigation. (D 270; H 245) 

197 (a) Glaciers are found in the. Swiss and Ber- 
nese Alps, in the Pyrenees and in the Caucasus moun- 




tains. Also in different parts of Alaska, in Greenland, 
in the Andes, the Himalayas, and in New Zealand, 
as well as in the Antarctic regions. (H 241) 

198 A great amount of snow accumulates in cold 
mountainous sections, and drifts and packs into the 
valleys. In the summer time it thaws during the 
day and freezes during the night ; rain also occasionally 



112 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

falls upon it. It gradually becomes part snow and 
part ice called neve. (6) In time there is such a great 
accumulation of neve that its own weight causes it 
to spread out at the bottom and force its way down 
the valley. It has now become solid ice and is called 
a glacier. Its rate of motion will depend upon the 
amount of snow fall to cause pressure, the slope of the 
mountain, the obstruction in the valley and the 
temperature. Alpine glaciers are in the highest 
mountains; Piedmont glaciers at their bases; and 
continental glaciers cover large sections of country. 

199 The great work of glaciers is transportation 
and erosion. As they move down the mountain 
valleys they break off rocks and tear away the soil, 
which they deposit in various places along their 
route. That deposited underneath is called a ground 
moraine, along the sides — a lateral moraine. The 
junction of two or more lateral moraines is a medial 
moraine, and the meterial deposited at the melting 
extremity is a terminal moraine. (H 239; D 108) 

200 See 199. 

201 Lines connecting places which have the same 
declination are called isagonal or isagonic lines. (H 
258) 

Lines connecting places which have the same 
angle of dip are called isoclinal lines. (H 258) 

Vessels that are too far below the horizon to be 
directly seen, become visible by refraction. This 
is called looming. (H 261) 

202 See 190. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 



113 



203 The deviation of the magnetic needle from a 
north and south direction is called declination or 
variation. This is due to the fact that the magnetic 
poles do not coincide with the geographical poles- 
(H 257) 

204 The lines of force in nearly all places on the 
earth act toward the surface, hence the position of the 
needle is horizontal in but few localities. In most 
places one end or the other is inclined toward the 




earth's surface. This is called the inclination or dip 
of the needle. (H 258) 

205 Whenever light passes obliquely from one 
medium into another whose, density is different, its 
direction is changed. This is called refraction. 

A teaspoon in a cup of tea appears bent. Place a 
penny in a shallow dish just below the line of sight 
and pour in water. The penny will seem to come 
into view. The colors seen in glass prisms and in the 
rainbow are also familiar illustrations. 



114 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

206 The earth, like all magnets, possesses a mag- 
netic field, lines of magnetic force come out at the 
north magnetic pole, pass around its surface through 
the air, and enter the earth at its south magnetic 
pole. This accounts for the direction of the magnetic 
needle. The exact cause of the earth's magnetism is 
not known. Electric currents are generated in nearly 
all substances when they are unequally heated. The 
earth's surface being unequally heated must nec- 
cessarily generate a vast amount of electricity, thus 
making itself a huge magnet, proof of which is that 
variations in the earth's temperature makes cor- 
responding variation in its magnetism. It has also 
been observed that solar activity is always followed 
fay variations in the earth's magnetism or by mag- 
netic storms. (H 256) 

207 Plant geography treats of the distribution of 
plant life over the earth. The plants of any section 
taken collectively are called its flora. (H 268) 

Zoological geography, sometimes called zoogeog- 
raphy, treats of the distribution of animal life over 
the earth's surface. The animals of any section taken 
collectively are called its fauna. (H 290) 

208 Light, heat and moisture. The influence of 
heat and moisture is noticed as we pass from the 
equator to the poles, or from the base to the summit 
of tropical mountains. The greatest luxuriance of 
vegetation is found in the equatorial regions, where 
both heat and moisture are most abundant. As we 
go towards the poles, where the heat is less, or into 



FLORA AND FAUNA 115 

localities devoid of moisture, we find the dense for- 
ests and foliage of the tropics replaced by shrubs, 
herbs, mosses, and lichens, and finally the simplest 
forms of vegetable life are entirely wanting. If we 
.ascend high tropical mountains the same phenomena 
.are noticed. (H 271) 

207 Rice requires heat and much moisture, so 
that such regions as lower China, the Carolinas in 
America, West Indies, Central America, Egypt, and 
Persia are just suited to its growth. (H 282) 

210 Barley, 70°, rye, 67°, oats, 65°, wheat, 64°, 
maize (Indian corn) and buckwheat 63°. (H 281) 

211 See 208. Distribution of animal life depends 
upon plant life for existence, so that with few ex- 
ceptions the laws that govern plant life also govern 
the animal life of a country. 

212 Barley is found in nearly all the northern 
-countries and will grow where it is too cold for cereals. 

Rye is grown in Norway, Russia, Germany, France, 
and Canada. 

Oats are grown in nearly all temperate countries. 

Wheat is without doubt the most useful and widely 
distributed of the cereals. It is the chief food grain 
of nearly all the civilized people of the earth. The 
United States, Canada, and Russia are great producers 
of it. 

Buckwheat is grown generally throughout* the 
colder parts of the temperate zone. It thrives in a 
sandy~soil. 



116 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

Indian corn is grown in all of the temperate coun- 
tries of North and South America. 

213 Rice, dates, cocoanuts, bananas, plantain, 
cassava, bread-fruit, sago, yams. (H 282) 

214 They are much fewer and entirely different 
from those of other countries. They seem to be 
species of a former geologic age. The marsupials, 
echidna and ornithorhynchus are characteristic an- 
imals, and the myrtle, the acacia, and the marsh 
oak are characteristic plants. 

215 See 209, 213, 214. 

216 Oats, barley, and buckwheat on the uplands 
and foothills of nearly the entire state. Wheat on 
the level sections of the western part. Potatoes and 
other vegetables on all, the forming sections. Truck 
gardening around all • the cities and large villages. 
Grapes and small fruits with some peaches are raised 
in the lake Erie region and along the Hudson. Apples 
and plums are raised in the warmer localities of the 
state. 

217 Selvas are the forest plains of the Amazon. 
They abound' in swamps, harboring alligators and 
gigantic lizards. The forest harbors nearly every 
kind of serpent, the greatest of which is the boa-con- 
strictor. Flamingoes, herons, and humming birds 
abound. 

Steppes are places where the moisture is not well 
distributed throughout the year and the rains are 
periodical, having regular dry spells so that the for- 
ests are replaced by either grassy plains or barren 
wastes. Such are found in the prairies of North Amer- 



FLORA AND FAUNA 117 

ica, and the plains of Russia, Australia, and Asia. 
On the Russian steppes may be found the bear, wolf, 
reindeer, fox, beaver and squirrel. 

The llanos of the Orinoco are almost devoid of 
vegetation during the dry season and with grasses 
during the wet. Many of the same animals are found 
there as are found in the selvas. 

Heaths are level tracts of land overgrown with 
heath and other shrubs. The animal life is similar 
to that of our western praries. 

Pampas are the grassy plains of the LaPlata. 
Over them roam countless herds of horses and cattle. 
The llama, condor, and puma are found on the plains 
and mountains of this section of South America. 

218 Cinchona is found in the upper slope of the 
tropical Andes. Quinine is obtained from its bark. 

Bread fruit is the pulpy fruit of a tree which grows 
only in the tropics, the South sea islands in the 
Friendly and Society group. (H 284) 

Coautchouc or India-rubber is found in many 
tropical countries. 

Cocaine is an alkaloid obtained from the leaves 
of cocoa, which has the effect upon the skin to cause 
the surface to become insensible to all feeling. 

Manioc, cassava, is the plant from which tapioca 
is made. 

Millet is a name applied to various grains and 
grasses. 

Lichen is a plant of a very low origin that grows 
on the bark of trees and on rocks of very cold coun- 
tries. 



118 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

219 The distribution of the fauna and flora by 
altitude is the same as that of horizontal distribution. 
Elevations from 5,000 to 10,000 feet give life similar 
to the tropics. From 8,000 to 12,000 to that of the 
warm temperate; 12,000 to 15,000 that of the cold 
temperate; 15,000 to 20,000 that of the polar or 
arctic regions. 

220 See 181, 185, 199. 

221 Cotton, flax, hemp for clothing. Cinchona 
tree for quinine; cocoa for cocaine; olive oil from the 
olive tree for medicine; pine for turpentine and rosin. 
Brazilwood, logwood. 

222 Mahogany, for the arts. See 213. 

223 See 208, 219. 

224 See 209. Sugar cane is grown in the West 
Indies, United States, Guinea, Brazil, Siam, China 
and Java. (H 284) 

225 Northern: grizzly bear, puma, moose, eagle, 
wolf, bison, fox, deer, reindeer, chamois, musk ox, yak, 
turkey, white bear, beaver. 

Southern: leopard, gnu, lion, zebra, rhinoceros, 
flamingo, elephant, ibis, hippopotamus, giraffe, os- 
trich, hyena. (G 109) 

226 Orang-outang, elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, 
wild boar, leopard, panther, hyena, anteater, parrot, 
pheasant, peacock. (G 108) 

227 The llama is a beast of burden in South 
America, as the camel is in Africa. The latter is fitted 
by nature to endure thirst and to travel in the sand. 



FLORA AND FAUNA 119 

The elephant is used in Asia because of his strength 
and intelligence. The horse is used in all civilized 
countries for speed and as a beast of burden. The 
dog is used in the arctic regions because of his en- 
durance and the small amount of food necessary to- 
keep him. The ox is also used in many civilized 
countries. 

228 Beaver, lynx, fox, martin, black bear. 

229 Eland, gnu, zebra, leopard, ostrich, rhinoc- 
erous, hippopotamus, giraffe, chimpanzee, ibis, py- 
thon. (G 109) 

230 Iguana, boa-constrictor, toucan, condor, rhea, 
armadillo, sloth, anteater, tapir, peccary, llama, al- 
paca, guanaco, puma, jaguar. (G 110) 

231 See 227. 

232 See 214, 225. 

233 The puma or American lion, sometimes called 
the panther of America, replaces the lion and tiger 
of Asia. The bison and musk ox of America are 
closely related to the yak of Asia. 

234 Carnivora represented by the dog, cat, wolf; 
Ungulata, represented by the deer, moose, pig; 
Insectivora, represented by the mole, hedgehog; 
Rodentia, represented by the rat, muskrat, beaver, 
squirrel; Passeres, represented by the crow, swallow, 
bobolink; Raptores, represented by the hawk, eagle. 

235 Oriental. The home of most of our domestic 
animals, a great variety of birds and of reptiles. 

Australian animals have already been mentioned. 
See 214. 



120 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

The Nearctic region extends from the extreme 
north Arctic to Mexico, and possesses almost every 
variety of climate. There are no physical barriers 
so that many species roam the whole length. Among 
them are the wolf, fox, polar bear, lynx, reindeer, 
silver fox. 

The Neotropic region embraces a wide expanse of 
forest and grassy plains. Its fauna is characterized 
by a variety and peculiarity of types such as the 
vampire, sloth, armadillo, jaguar, peccary. 

The Ethiopian region embraces a vast desert tract 
in the north and an equatorial region of forests. 
This region is also noted for the number and variety 
of its animals like the lion, leopard, panther, hyena, 
jackal. 

236 The Chinese belong to the Mongolian race 
characterized by short stature, broad form, round 
head, narrowing at the top, wide, flat face, small 
chin, prominent cheek bones; small deep set, oblique 
eyes; coarse, straight hair, and yellowish skin. They 
occupy the whole of eastern Asia except India. 
Turks, Chinese, Japanese, and Eskimo either belong 
to or are descended from this race. In social culture 
they are inferior to the Caucasian. 

The native Australian shows a general resemblance 
to the negro race,yet the form is still less symmetrical 
and the features are more irregular. The color is a 
livid, grayish black, hair thick and bushy, and eye 
deep set. They are perhaps imerior to all the other 
races. | '§ j _ ; 



FLORA AND FAUNA 121 

The Japanese are the most intelligent and pro- 
gressive of the Mongolians. 

American Indians are distinguished by their cop- 
pery red color, black straight hair, scanty beard, 
massive jaws, large straight nose and deep set black 
eyes. They are low in civilization, many tribes being 
but savages. 

237 They are distinguished by tall stature, grace- 
ful proportions, and light elastic step; oval head and 
face, high broad forehead; abundant beard and wavy 
hair. Color varies from white to tawny. They are 
the dominating race in Europe, India, Australia, 
and over most of America. 

238 Anatomical structure is the same in all races. 
Gradual modification of types presented by the differ- 
ent races proves that different geographical surround- 
ings would produce different types. 

Folk-lore. Myths, legends, customs, proverbs, 
superstitions, games, etc, show great similarities. 

Resemblance of languages is seen in common words 
as father, mother, brother, sister. 

239 They lived on the cold, barren soil where 
they developed a great hardihood in striving to get 
living. As their numbers increased they roved far- 
ther and farther from home, attacking their less hardy 
neighbors and taking home the spoils. Finally they 
emigrated in large numbers and conquered and settled 
in milder climes. 

240 See 236. 



122 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




AN AFRICAN SERVANT IN ALGIERS 



FLORA AND FAUNA 12cT 

241 Either they are separate creations, one having 
been endowed with greater natural ability; or the 
environment of the one caused a more rapid develop- 
ment as they defended themselves against their 
enemies and struggled to secure sustenance. 

242 They doubtless originally lived in all southern 
Africa south of the Sahara, India south of the Indo- 
Gangetic plains, Malay, Asia, and the greater part of 
Australasia. In early and middle tertiary times this 
tract was probably broken up by the sa and the 
disappearance of the region named Lemuria by 
Sclater. 

The head is narrow, and elongated backward; fore- 
head is low and retreating; the nose broad and flat, 
the cheek bones very prominent, projecting jaws 
and thick lips, hair short, crisp and wooly. They 
are distributed over the greater part of uncivilized 
Africa, and as slaves or descendants of slaves in many 
other parts of the world. They are low in intellect, 
care little for science or letters, and in arts are con- 
fined to agriculture, weaving, pottery, woodwork, 
and the use of simple instruments of iron. 

243 He has built canals, embankments to keep 
out the sea — as in Holland, and tunnels through 
mountains; he has irrigated the deserts, enlarged har- 
bors, built railroads over the mountains, built tele- 
graph lines, and laid cables. 

244 American. Lack of progress due to isolation 
from other races. 



124 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

Caucasian. Progress due to difficulty of securing 
sustenance, and mingling with other races. 

Mongolian Lack of progress due to both isolation 
and ease of securing a living. 

Ethiopian. Lack of progress due to isolation and 
ease of satisfying wants. 

Malay. Lack of progress due to ease with which 
their wants were satisfied. 

245 See question 243. 

246 The Mississippi valley by building banks to 
prevent floods. Straightened river course as at 
Utica, N. Y. Irrigation in the western states. Em- 
bankments of Holland to keep out the sea. Walls 
built to prevent the sea from wearing away the shore 
along the coast of New Jersey. 

247 They are carried from one place to another 
by winds, or by ocean or river currents; or they are 
accidentally carried by some of the means employed 
by commerce for transporting commodities from one 
region to another; or they are carried to considerable 
distances by means of other animals; or they are 
carried by man from one region to another. 

248 Meteorology is the science which treats of the 
atmosphere and its phenomena. 

. Races, see 114. 

Water spouts arise during tornadoes or whirlwinds. 
Portions of the clouds are sometimes drawn down 
from above and whirled around; the whirl reaches the 
water, and a column of spray is thrown up which 
unites with the mass alive. 

Aurora borealis or northern lights occur in high 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 125 

latitudes, caused by the passage of electricity through 
the rare air of the upper regions. See 190. 

Detritus is the fine material transported by the 
river. 

The crest of a wave in shallow water moves for- 
ward with great velocity and strikes against the 
shore. The water carried forward in the crest re- 
turns along the bottom in a current called undertow. 

Halos are rings of prismatic colors surrounding the 
sun and moon, caused by the presence in the air 
of small crystals of ice or snow. 

The bottom of the ocean is covered with a creamy 
layer of muduor ooz which consists almost entirely 
of microscopic skeletons of a group of animalculae 
called foraminifera. 

Doldrums or Equatorial calms lie near the equator, 
between the limits of the north east and the south- 
east trades. Its humid air, with its baffling breezes, 
too feeble to carry a vessel, together with its frequent 
rains, make this region much dreaded by sailing ves- 
sels. See p. 90. 

Agones are lines connecting places where the 
needle points to the true north. 

On entering the estuary of a river, the volume of 
whose discharge is considerable, the onward progress 
of the tidal wave is checked, but, piling up its waters, 
the incoming tides at last overcomes the resistance 
of the stream and advances rapidly in several huge 
waves. This is known as a bore. 

A divide is the line or plane which separates one 
stream or system of streams from another. 



126 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

The relief of a country is the elevations and de- 
pressions of the surface as compared with the level 
of the sea. 

Fauna, see 207. 

An estuary is the wide open mouth of a river. 

Cotidal lines are those lines connecting places which 
receive the same tidal wave at the same time. 

Physiography is the science which treats of the 
physical features of the earth's surface. 

Silt, see detritus. 

Breakers are formed where the motion at the bot- 
tom of the wave is lessened, causing the top to curl 
over and break. 

Peat is an inferior kind of fuel found from decaying 
vegetation. 

Talus is the name given to the rocks and stones 
found at the foot of cliffs which have been weathered 
from the cliffs above. 

The anemometer is an instrument used for meas- 
uring the velocity of the wind. 

Ethnography treats of the varieties of the human 
race and their distribution. 

249 Physical geography treats of the earth in its 
relations to nature and to the natural laws which 
determine its phenomena. Political geography treats 
of the earth in its relations to the government and 
societies of men, of the manner of life of a people, and 
of their civilization and government. 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 127 

250 Gold in the western states, silver in Colorado, 
copper around Lake Superior, lead in Illinois. 

251 Southern, to sail with the north equatorial 
current. 

252 A good harbor such as New York, Boston 
and Chicago; nearness to water falls for their water 
power, as Little Falls, Cohoes, N. Y. , Lowell, Mass. 
At the junction of several rivers, such as Pittsburgh 
which is also at the head of navigation. Cities near 
large coal mines like Scranton. 

253 See 52, 54. 

254 See 71. 

255 Answers will differ according to locality. 

256 It forms a means of communication between 
the people living on opposite sides of the mountain. 
Little Falls, N. Y, Quebec, Canada,; Marshall Pass, 
Colo. ; Brenner pass in the Alps. 

257 The Erie canal and the Hudson river 
form a direct line of communication between the At- 
lantic ocean and the great lakes. The Champlain canal 
connects the waters of lake champlain with Hudson 
river. The Black river canal from Boonville to Rome 
connects the Black river and Erie canal. The Os- 
wego canal from Syracuse to Oswego connects the 
Erie canal and lake to Lake Ontario. Boats also ply 
to and fro on the Finger lakes of central New York. 

258 Gas and petroleum in southwestern N. Y. ; 
salt in Onondaga, Tompkins and Wyoming counties, 
iron in Clinton and Essex counties; talc and marble 
in St. Lawrence county; sandstone at Medina and 
Potsdam; limestone in central and western N. Y 



128 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

259 New York, the outlet for the commerce of 
the great lakes; Pittsburgh at the head of navigation 
on the Ohio and in the center of coal and iron mines; 
Little Falls and Cohoes for water power; New Or- 
leans at the mouth of the Mississippi; Chicago on 
the lakes, as a grain and live stock shipping station; 
San Francisco on its magnificent harbor. 

260 Because it sails with the prevailing winds and 
the current of the Gulf stream. By hours it gains 
some three hours in going east and loses it in going 
west. 

261 The ground is so level and the soil is so free 
from glacier drift that nearly all form work can be 
done by machinery. Hence, mechanics have studied 
to develop implements that will do a maximum of 
work with a minimum of labor. 

262 In veins and in the soil. As the rock con- 
taining the vein is worn away by weathering the gold 
is carried down the stream and deposited in the soil 
to a larger rise by an uplift of the continent over 
which it flows. The White, Arkansas, and Red rivers 
have been engrafted on the Mississippi. 

A drowned river is one that has been changed into 
a bay or estuary by the sinking of the land. Ghes- 
apeake and Delaware bays are examples. 

264 See 80. 

265 For races, whirlpools, and maelstrom see 114. 
Convection is the interchange under water of different 
quantities of air of different temperature. 

266 They aid a vessel by floating it along on the 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 129 

current, if the vessel is going in the direction of the 
current. 

267 Sandstone at Medina and Potsdam; marble 
at Gouverneur; limestone near Syracuse; granite in 
the Adirondacks; bluestone in Schoharie county. 

268 Glacial deposits are those made directly from 
the ice mass, such as moraines, drumlins, etc. Glacial 
sediment is deposited from streams of water escaping 
from the glacial ice. (H 242) 

269 Till sheets are deposits of tough clay contain- 
ing more or less sand, stones, and boulders of various 
size, devoid of any regular arrangement. 

Drumlins are low, rounded, oblong hills, probably 
formed under the ice sheet. They correspond with 
sand-bars or mud-flats in rivers, and with dunes on 
land. 

Eskers are long, tortuous ridges of gravel or sand, 
deposited by the streams that flowed through winding 
tunnels under the ice. | 

Karnes are rounded hillocks piled up by the sub- 
glacial waters. (H 247) 

270 Alpine glaciers are those which occur in the 
highest mountain region, such as the glaciers of the 
Alps, the Himalayas, and the Rocky mountains. 
They have their origin on the summits and flanks 
of lofty mountains. (H 239) 

Piedmont glaciers, are those formed by the union 
of the Alpine glaciers on the plains adjacent to the 
mountain defiles. These glaciers may be compared, 
in the ice drainage of the land, to lakes in the water 
drainage. (H 239) 



130 



KEGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




MONSOON OVER THE INDIAN OCEAN IN JANUARY 




THE SAME IN JULY 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 131 

Continental glaciers are glaciers of vast extent 
that cover large parts of continents. The glaciers 
of Greenland and of the Antarctic regions are of 
this class. (H 239) 

271 Answers will differ. 

272 Its position in the north temperate zone; its. 
great length and breadth; its variety of mountains, 
hills, valleys, and plains; its navigable rivers; its 
climate and rainfall; its diversified mineral wealth 
all tend to aid in developing a high form of civilization. 

273 The zone of Equatorial calms, sometimes 
called the doldrums, lies near the equator, between 
the limits of the northeast and the southeast trades, 
over the zone of least barometric pressure. Here the 
ascending currents tend to neutralize the inblowing 
polar currents, thus producing an unstable calm that 
is liable to be disturbed at intervals by strong wind. 
This moves northward in summer and to the south 
in winter. (H 205) 

Antitrades. The air also moves from the belts of 
high pressure toward each pole and is deflected east- 
ward. This accounts for the prevailing westerlies, 
from the southwest in the northern hemisphere and 
from the northwest in the southern. They are some- 
times called the zones of prevailing westerly winds, 
and extend across the temperate zones into the polar 
regions. These localities are subject to storms. 

Zones of the calms of Cancer and Capricorn, some- 
times called the horse latitudes, are less distinct. 
They are situated between the higher latitude limits 



132 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEC-SftAPHY 

of the trades and the zones of the westerly winds. 
They are frequently disturbed by light variable winds. 

Zones of the polar winds extend from the limit of 
the zones of the prevailing westerly winds to the 
poles. But little is known of these zones. (H 205; 
D 306) 

274 Of the zone of fracture Guyot says "each of 
the three divergent tracts of land is invaded nearly 
midway by the ocean, or by great inland seas, from 
which there results in each a belt of broken lands, 
peninsulas and islands." "Within this belt are the 
great archipelagoes of the East and West Indies, 
and the peninsulas of southern Asia and Europe." 

"These regions form part of a broad transverse 
zone which may properly be designated the central 
zone of fracture. " "It passes through the Carribbean 
sea in the new world; and the Mediterranean sea and 
East Indiean archipelago in the old world." 

276 Dana says the Appalachian system was 
formed by the " progressive subsidence of the geocyn- 
cline, the accumulation of an enormous thickness of 
strata, the weakening of the deeply buried sediments 
by the internal heat of the earth, and the final yielding 
to the accumulating strain." Thus were forced up 
several nearly parallel ranges or folds, varied in parts 
of the system by faults thousands of feet in extent. 

276 The rocks are nearly horizontal. Sixty feet 
of the upper rock is limestone. Most of the rocks 
below are shale or hardened mud. As the under 
rock wears away, great blocks of the upper rock fall. 
Thus the gorge is growing longer by wearing its way 



134 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 




if AP OF BOSTON akd VICINITY. 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 135- 

up stream at the rate of about four or five feet per 
year. It is thought that in time nearly the entire 
sixty feet of fall will be worn back to Lake Erie. 
Should this happen the water of the Great lakes 
would be lowered by many feet. 

277 The northern branch of the Gulf stream flows; 
past the British isles to the west of Scandanavia. 
The westerly prevailing winds blow the warmth and 
moisture over the land as far as the mountains, which 
to a large extent prevents the moisture from passing 
to the eastern side. 

278 Many plants seem to require carbon dioxide,, 
so an increase of it would increase the number and 
size of these plants, but would destroy animal life 
outside of the waters. Decrease of carbon dioxide 
would lessen the number and size of these plants. 

279 In the western part, because the prevailing, 
winds bring moisture from the warm Japan current. 

280 Because New England is more or less covered 
with glacial drift, which makes the surface rough and 
stony and the soil poor. 

281 Fruit growing in southern California, because 
of the soil and the mild climate produced by westerly 
winds and the Japan current. The great corn and 
wheat belt of the level praries of the middle west. 

The great coal industry of Pennsylvania. 

282 For an excellent system of weather map 
drawing see D 410. 

283 Very large bodies of water are almost insur- 
mountable barriers to the distribution of animals. 



136 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



Madagascar possesses a fauna almost distinct from 
that of the neighboring coast of Africa. 

Extensive and elevated mountain ranges offer a 
serious barrier to the migration of most forms of ani- 
mal life. The fauna of the Pacific coast differs in 
many respects from that of the, plateau of the Rocky 
Highlands. 

284 Pressure at the sea-level is about 15 pounds 
for every square inch of surface. 

Density varies with the pressure. The higher the 
ascent the less the pressure and density. 

285 Because the hot winds have been robbed of 
their moisture before reaching that part of Africa. 

286 Have two openings in a room and by means 
of a lighted candle show that the hot air goes through 



V 



V 



A 



D 




the upper opening while the cold air comes in at the 
lower openings. This illustrates those movements 
of the atmosphere known as winds. 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 137 

287 A thermometer consists of a liquid-filled bulb 
and a tube of uniform bore. The liquid is usually 
mercury or alcohol. The top of the tube is freed 
from air and hermetically sealed. 

The two common thermometers are Fahrenheit 
and Centigrade. Freezing is marked 32 on the 
Fahrenheit scale and boiling 212. On the Centigrade 
freezing is and boiling is 100. 

Heat expands the liquid in the bulb, causing it to 
rise in the tube. 

288 Desert of Gobi, caused by the high mountains 
condensing the moisture. 

Desert of Sahara. See 285. 

Great American desert, mountains condense the 
moisture from the Pacific. 

The salt and alkaline deserts of Death valley in 
southwestern U. S. , and in the neighborhood of the 
Dead sea. 

Cactus deserts of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. 

289 Because of the direction of the prevailing 
winds. 

290 Block mountains are great fractured blocks 
'of the earth's strata elevated above the surrounding 

country. Such are the mountains of southern Oregon 
and upper California. 

Folded mountains are formed by the folding of the 
earth's strata. The Jura mountains are an ^example. 

291 Off the banks of New Foundland, the warm 
moist air of the Gulf stream is cooled by the cold 
moist air of the Labrador ocean current. Hence re- 



138 



REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



suit the dense fogs so common over this part of the 
ocean. 

292 Physiographic barriers are such as great 
bodies of water, great mountain ranges and deserts. 
Climatic or physiological barriers are either heat 
barriers or food barriers. 

The tropical boa-constrictor cannot live in the arctic 
regions like the polar bear, nor can the cactus grow 
in the arctic regions. 

293 Its variety of soil, mines, water power and 
good harbors have tended to promote the material 
prosperity of Great Britain. 



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